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CQEXRIGHT DEPOSm 



THE PKINCIPLES OF FEEDING 
FARM ANIMALS 



T>^^)<i^o 



>9 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



THE PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING 
FARM ANIMALS 



BY 



SLEETER BULL, B.S., B.S.Ac. M.S. 

ASSOCIATE IN ANIMAL NUTRITION, COLLEGE OF AGRICULTCTRE 

AND AGRICrrLTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION OF 

THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1916 

* All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1916, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published September, 1916. 




NorbJooH ilregg 

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



'CI.A43786 4 



n^-^ I , 



PREFACE 

This volume is an outgrowth from a class manual written 
several years ago by the author for the use of elementary stu- 
dents at the University of Illinois in a general course in stock- 
feeding. Inasmuch as there has been some little demand for 
the class manual from outside sources, the author has rewritten 
the original manuscript and added a number of valuable illus- 
trations and tables. 

An effort has been made to present the scientific facts under- 
lying the art of feeding animals in such a manner that the book 
will not only be suitable for use as a text for college courses in 
general feeding, but will also be valuable to the farmer who 
has not had a technical education in agriculture. Thus it has 
been deemed wise to omit many minor details and a large part 
of the mass of experimental data from which the general con- 
clusions are deduced. 

In the first six chapters the author has discussed the scien- 
tific aspects of the subject and has attempted to present them 
in a simple, concise manner so that they may be easily under- 
stood, not only by the student but also by the feeder who 
desires to familiarize himself with the scientific princii3les 
underlying the art of stock-feeding. A large number of draw- 
ings and photographs illustrating points in the discussion 
should be of gf eat value in this connection. 



vi PREFACE 

On account of the " back to the land " movement which is 
sending men from the cities to the agricultural colleges and to 
the farm, a mere discussion of balanced rations and feeding 
standards has not seemed sufficient. Consequently the author 
has presented rather definite rules regarding the feeding of 
the different classes of live stock 'which, taken in connection 
with the feeding standards and the discussion of the nutritive 
value of the different feeds, should enable the inexperienced 
feeder to formulate at least fairly satisfactory rations. This 
point has also been kept in mind in treating of the feeding 
values of the different feeds, and an attempt has been made to 
make specific rather than general statements regarding the 
amounts, proportions, and combinations of feeds in the rations 
of different classes of farm animals. It has also seemed of 
value to insert illustrations of the principal crops used for 
feeding. 

It has seemed desirable, partly in order to avoid duplication, 
to discuss the use of each of the principal feeds for the differ- 
ent species and classes of live stock rather than to devote 
separate chapters to the feeding of the different classes of farm 
animals. For example, under the discussion of corn, its use is 
given in the rations of growing cattle, colts, pigs, and lambs ; 
fattening cattle, hogs, and sheep ; breeding cattle, horses, hogs, 
and sheep ; dairy cows ; and work horses. 

In addition to the discussion of the nutritive value of feeds 
and rations, the author has given particular attention to their 
fertilizing values, a phase which is often neglected both by the 
student and the stockman. 

The author is deeply indebted to Professor H. S. Grindley, 
Dr. H. H. Mitchell, Professor W. C. Coffey, Professor H. P. 
Kusk, Professor J. L. Edmonds, Mr. W. J. Carmichael, Mr. C. 
I. Newlin, and Mr. R. S. Hulce of the University of Illinois, 



PREFACE vii 

to Dr. W. E. Joseph of the Montana Agricultural College, and 
to Professor J. M. Evvard of the Iowa State College for many 
valuable suggestions and criticisms, and he extends to them his 
sincere thanks. He also thanks the Illinois Experinient Sta- 
tion for the use of unpublished data ; and The Macmillan 
Company, The Chicago Medical Book Company, The W. B. 
Saunders Publishing Company, Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, 
Professor H. W. Mumford, United States Department of 
Agriculture, United States Bureau of the Census, Ohio Ex- 
periment Station, Wisconsin Experiment Station, Kentucky 
Experiment Station, Connecticut Experiment Station, Penn- 
sylvania Experiment Station, Vermont Experiment Station, 
Missouri Experiment Station, Iowa Experiment Station, Cor- 
nell Experiment Station, and Illinois Experiment Station for 

the use of illustrations. 

SLEETER BULL. 

Urbana, Illinois 

July, 1916. 



CONTENTS 



Introduction 

„^ I. The Chemical Composition of Feedingstuffs 
II. The Chemical Composition of Farm Animals 

III. The Digestion of the Nutrients . 

IV. The Digestibility of Feedingstuffs . 
V. Functions of the Feed Nutrients in the Animal Body 

VI. Energy in Feedingstuffs and its Uses in the Animal 

Body 

VII. The Compounding of Rations 
VIII. The Feed Requirements of Farm Animals 

'-'" IX. Grains and Seeds 

X. The Cereal By-products 
XI. The Oil By-products .... 
XII. The Packinghouse By-products 

XIII. Miscellaneous Concentrates 

XIV. The Hays .... 
XV. Fodders and Stovers 

XVI. The Straws 

XVII. Pasture or Forage, and Soil: 
XVIII. Silage .... 

XlX. Miscellaneous Roughages 
XX. The Efficiency of Rations 
XXI. The Fertilizing Values of Feedingstuffs 
XXII. The Valuation of Feedingstuffs . 

Appendix . „ . . . « • 



NG Crops 



PAGB 

xvii 
1 
25 
34 
56 
76 

92 
107 
119 
157 
188 
206 
216 
221 
232 
256 
263 
266 
287 
296 
305 
320 
330 
335 



IX 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



1. Composition of steers from 100 to 1200 pounds. (T. L. Haecker, 

Minnesota Experiment Station) 29 

2. Porterhouse steak from a prime steer. Note tlie "marbling." 

(Illinois Experiment Station) 32 

3. Digestive tract of man — schematic. (Paton, Veterinary 

Pliysiology, Chicago Medical Book Company) ... 35 

4. Stomach of the horse. (Sisson, Veterinary Anatomy, W. B. 

Saunders Publishing Company) 36 

5. Caecum of the horse. (Smith, Manual of Veterinary Physiology, 

Bailliere, Tindall and Cox) 37 

6. Head of cow, showing some of the salivary glands. (Sisson, 

Veterinary Anatomy, W. B. Saunders Publishing Company) 38 

7. Digestive tract of the horse. (United States Department of 

Agriculture) 39 

8. Stomach of a sheep. (United States Department of Agriculture) 44 

9. Cross-section of mucous membrane of the small intestine. 

(Jordan, Principles of Human Nutrition, The Macmillan 
Company) 48 

10. Longitudinal section of a villus. (Jordan, Principles of Human 

Nutrition, The Macmillan Company) 49 

11. Loop of small intestine of the horse during active absorption. 

(Smith, Manual of Veterinary Physiology, Bailliere, Tin- 
dall and Cox) 50 

12. Digestion harness on a pig (Hlinois Experiment Station) . 57 

13. These pigs were fed a ration deficient in phosphorus. (Wis- 

consin Experiment Station) ...... 78 

14. These pigs were fed the same ration as those in Figure 13, with 

the addition of phosphorus in the form of calcium phos- 
phate. (Wisconsin Experiment Station) .... 79 

15. Abnormal bones from hogs whose rations were low in calcium 

(corn alone, and corn and soybeans). (Ohio Experiment 

StatioB) 80 

xi 



xii ILL US TRA TIONS 



FIGURE 



PAGE 

16. The ration of these pigs was deficient in the amount and quality 

of protein. (Illinois Experiment Station) .... 83 

17. The ration of these pigs contained sufficient protein of the proper 

quality. (Illinois Experiment Station) .... 84 

18. The effect of the amount and kind of protein upon the bones 

of growing pigs. (Illinois Experiment Station) ... 86 

19. Pigs at the beginning of a 196-day feeding period upon corn 

alone. (Kentucky Experiment Station) ' . . . .86 

20. The same pigs as shown in Figure 19 after 196 days of feeding 

corn alone. (Kentucky Experiment Station) ... 87 

21 . Section of bomb calorimeter. (Connecticut (Storrs) Experiment 

Station) 94 

22. Respiration calorimeter at the Institute for Animal Nutrition, 

State College, Pa. (H. P. Armsby, Pennsylvania Experi- 
ment Station) 96 

23. Cross-sections of haystacks of different shapes showing the 

corresponding values for " F." (United States Department 

of Agriculture) 117 

24. A self-feeder for cattle. (Mumford, Beef Production) . . . 153 

25. A self-feeder for hogs. (Illinois Experiment Station) . . 154 

26. Corn production in the United States. (United States Census) 158 

27. An ear of dent corn. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) IfiO 

28. Cross-section of a kernel of dent corn. (Livingston, Field Crop 

Production, The Macmillan Company) .... 160 

29. An ear of flint corn. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 161 

30. Cross-section of a kernel of flint corn. (Livingston, Field Crop 

Production, The Macmillan Company) . . . .161 

31. Distribution of oat production in the United States. (United 

States Census, 1910) 170 

32. Ergot in a head of rye. (Duggar, Southern Field Crops, The 

Macmillan Company) 175 

33. A head of barley. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 176 

34. Distribution of barley production in the United States. (United 

States Census, 1910) 177 

35. A head of emmer. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 178 



ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 

PIGTTRE PAGE 

36. A head of spelt. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 179 

37. Heads of the principal types of sorghums. (Montgomery, The 

Corn Crops, The Macmillan Company) .... 180 

38. Seeds of the principal types of grain sorghums. (Montgomery, 

The Corn Crops, The Macmillan Company) . . . 181 

39. A panicle of rice. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 182 

40. Ten varieties of cowpeas. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Mac- 

millan Company) -183 

41. Ten varieties of soybeans. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Mac- 

millan Company) 184 

42. Pods of cowpeas and soybeans. (Livingston, Field Crop Pro- 

duction, The Macmillan Company) . . . . . 184 

43. Koot of peanut. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Mac- 

millan Company) 185 

44. A cotton plant. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Mac- 

millan Company) 186 

45. Structure of the corn kernel. (Illinois Experiment Station) . 189 

46. Section of wheat kernel. (Jordan, The Feeding of Animals, 

The Macmillan Company) 194 

47. Weeds growing from seed found in a commercial feed con- 

taining screenings. (Vermont Experiment Station) . . 200 

48. Buckwheat in bloom, (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 204 

49. Distribution of hay and forage in the United States. (United 

States Census, 1910) 233 

50. Bed clover. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Mac- 

millan Company) 234 

51. Production of clover in the United States. (Hitchcock, A Text- 

book of Grasses, The Macmillan Company) . . . 235 

52. An alfalfa plant. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Mac- 

millan Company) 237 

63. Distribution of alfalfa in the United States. (United States 

Census, 1910) 238 

54. Arrangements of leaflets of alfalfa and clover. (Livingston, 

Field Crop Production, The Macmillan Company) . . 239 

55. Alsike clover. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Mac- 

millan Company) 241 



Xiv ILL us TRA TIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

56. Sweet clover. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) 242 

57. A crimson clover plant. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, 

The Macmillan Company) 243 

58. Field pea. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) , 244 

59. Cowpea. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) . 245 

60. A soybean plant. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The 

Macmillan Company) 246 

6L Hairy vetch. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) 247 

62. Timothy. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) . 248 

63. Production of timothy in the United States. (Hitchcock, A . 

Textbook of Grasses, The Macmillan Company) . . 249 

64. Common millet. (Voorhees, Forage Crops, The Macmillan 

Company) 250 

65. German millet. (Voorhees, Forage Crops, The Macmillan 

Company) 251 

66. Hungarian millet. (Voorhees, Forage Crops, The Macmillan 

Company) .......... 251 

67. A field of Sudan-grass. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan 

Company) 252 

68. Red top. (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Macmillan 

Company) 253 

69. Orchard-grass. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Com- 

pany) 254 

70. Bermuda-grass, (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Com- 

pany) 255 

71. Field of orange sorghum. (Voorhees, Forage Crops, The Mac- 

millan Company) 258 

72. A field of black-hulled vs^hite kafir. (Duggar, Southern Field 

Crops, The Macmillan Company) 259 

73. Field of milo. (Montgomery, The Corn Crops, The Macmillan 

Company)- 260 

74. Showing seed per acre, approximate time of planting and feed- 

ing different soiling crops. (Illinois Experiment Station) . 269 

75. Field of velvet beans. (Duggar, Southern Field Crops, The 

Macmillan Company) 275 

76. A field of oats and peas. (Voorhees, Forage Crops, The Mac- 

millan Company) 276 

77. Panicles of Canada blue grass and Kentucky blue grass. (Piper, 

Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) .... 279 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



78. Brome-grass. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Company) 282 

79. Hogging down corn. (Iowa Experiment Station) . . . 284 

80. Meadow-fescue. (Piper, Forage Plants, The Macmillan Com- 

pany) 285 

81. Mangels. (Cornell Experiment Station) 297 

82. Sugar beet, (Livingston, Field Crop Production, The Mac- 

millan Company) 298 

83. Carrots. (Cornell Experiment Station) 299 

84. Rutabagas. (Cornell Experiment Station) .... 300 

85. Cassava. (Duggar, Southern Field Crops, The Macmillan 

Company) '. . . 301 

86. Hogs in rape. (Missouri Experiment Station) . . . , 302 

87. Kohlrabi. (Cornell Experiment Station) 303 



INTRODUCTION 

Any study of scientific agriculture should include a study 
of stock feeding, inasmuch as 15 per cent of the total farm 
capital of this country is invested in farm animals, and all 
these animals must be fed. According to the United States 
Department of Agriculture there are 25,000,000 horses and 
mules, 59,000,000 cattle, 52,000,000 sheep, and 65,000,000 hogs 
in the United States. 77.6 per cent of the corn crop, 59.0 per 
cent of the oats crop, 32.5 per cent of the barley crop, and 80.0 
per cent of the hay crop are fed to animals on the farm. These 
figures do not take into consideration the animals of the cities, 
The value of these crops is something over $2,270,000,000. 
or if one includes the horses of the cities, the total feed bill 
of this country is at least $2,500,000,000 per year exclusive of 
the enormous am^ounts of money spent for commercial feeds 
not grown on the farm, such as bran, cottonseed meal, etc. 
All together the animals of the United States produce about 
$5,000,000,000 worth of products yearly, — a sum nearly as 
great as the value of our total crops. 

No matter what phase of agriculture a man expects to make 
his life Vork, whether he is a dairyman, a live stock farmer, 
an orchardist, a grain farmer, or a market gardener, he is cer- 
tain to need at least a general knowledge of the feeding of 
farm animals. There is no type or system of agriculture 
which does not necessitate the use and, consequently, the 
feeding of some animals. To the specialist in animal or dairy 



xviii INTRODUCTION 

husbandry, a knowledge of the best feeding practices is of 
utmost importance. 

Within recent years many factors have arisen so affecting 
the live stock industry that it is imperative that the successful 
breeder and feeder must have an intimate knowledge of the 
fundamental, scientific principles underlying the art of stock 
feeding. The great increase in the value of farm land, espe- 
cially in the corn-belt, the gradual disappearance of the range, 
and the consequent increase in the value of feedingstuffs and 
of live stock require that the stockman take advantage of 
every aid which science and experience offer in order to make 
his business a financial success. 

There is, in many cases, a large waste in the feeding of our 
farm animals. Many of our good farmers are feeding rations 
which although giving good results are. not as economical as 
others which would give the same results ; others do not 
obtain the best results although they feed a more expensive 
ration. Greater efficiency and greater economy in a great 
many cases will result from the application of a few general 
scientific principles. 

New or unfamiliar crops, as alfalfa, cowpeas, soybeans, sweet 
clover, rape, Sudan-grass, etc., necessitate a wider knowledge 
of feeding values. Also the successful feeder must have a 
knowledge of the feeding values of commercial feeds and by- 
products from the manufacture of human foods, as tankage, 
beet pulp, distillers' grains, the oil meals, etc. One or two 
generations ago the feeds commonly used for live stock were 
usually restricted to the grains and roughages grown on the 
farm. However, with the great increase in the value of land, 
farm animals, and farm crops, knowledge of the feeding value 
of the farm crops is not sufficient, but the feeder must also 
be familiar with the feeding value and general adaptability of 



INTRODUCTION xix 

the large number of by-products on the market, especially as 
these feeds vary considerably in price and even more in nutri- 
tive value. Most economical feeding is therefore only possible 
when the relative values of these purchased feeds and the 
farm grown feeds are clearly understood. Oftentimes a man 
can sell to good advantage a part of the feeds produced upon 
the farm and buy commercial feeds for his live stock. On the 
other hand many farmers buy commercial feeds at prices much 
above their true value. Also the manures from some feeds 
have a much higher fertilizing value than the manures from 
others, thus necessitating a knowledge of the fertilizing values 
of feedingstuffs. 

•A partial solution to the problem of the "high cost" of 
living may be found in rational stock feeding. A large part 
of our farm crops are unfit for human food. However, by 
feeding these rough feeds to meat or dairy animals, we may 
convert an otherwise useless product into the most nutritious 
of foods. Many farmers, especially west of Ohio, burn tons 
of corn stover and straw every year because there is no market 
for them and they have no live stock to eat them. As you 
will learn later, one-third of the feeding value of the corn crop 
is in the stover. However, the only way to recover that third 
and make it fit for human use is to feed it to animals and 
convert it into meat or milk, or wool. Our soil experts tell 
us that in order to maintain the fertility of our soil econom- 
ically we must introduce a legume into the crop rotation. To 
do this and make the most profit from our land, we must keep 
live stock in order to convert the roughage of the rotation into 
human food. 



THE PRmCIPLES OF FEEDING 
FARM ANIMALS 

CHAPTER I 

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 

In order for the student of stockfeeding to acquire a 
thorough understanding of the subject, it is necessary for him 
to have a general knowledge of the chemical composition of 
feedingstuffs. The composition of feedingstuffs is quite 
variable, and their feeding value depends to a large extent 
upon their composition. When asked concerning the value 
of a feed mth which one is unfamiliar, one usually refers to 
its chemical composition, although other factors also have 
considerable influence, as will be explained later. 

Elements. — Chemistry teaches that all vegetable and 
animal substances are composed ultimately of chemical 
elements. Of the 83 chemical elements now known, ap- 
parently only 12 are of importance from the standpoint of 
stockfeeding. These are as follows : carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, sulphur, 
sodium, magnesium, chlorine, and iron.^ Other elements, 

^ Dr. C. G. Hopkins, in "Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture," 
presents the following memory key to the elements essential to plant life : 
"C. Hopk'ns' CaFe, Mg," if "Mg" stands for "mighty good" and "I" 
is omitted for modesty. If the student then remembers that all animals 
require salt, NaCl, He has a list of the important elements. 
B 1 



2 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

\ 

as iodine, fluorine, silicon, aluminium, copper, arsenic, and 
manganese, often occur in small amounts in plant and animal 
life, but they are not of sufficient importance in this con- 
nection to warrant their further mention. 

Compounds. — Although vegetable and animal substances 
consist primarily of chemical elements, these elements, with 
the exception of small amounts of oxygen and nitrogen, do 
not exist in the plant or animal in the free, elemental state, 
but they occur in combination with one another to form com- 
pounds, such as sugar, starch, fat, and water. The compounds 
which occur in plant and animal Hfe are large in number and 
vary considerably in their chemical composition, their proper- 
ties, and their nutritive values. In fact, these compounds are 
so numerous and varied that the chemist has attempted to 
simplify their discussion by dividing them into five classes, put- 
ting all compounds of similar composition, properties, and nu- 
tritive value into the same class. These classes are as follows : 
(1) water, (2) mineral matter or ash, (3) crude protein, (4) car- 
bohydrates, and (5) fats. The first two classes are incombusti- 
ble, and are called inorganic compounds, while the last three 
classes are combustible, and are called organic compounds. 

Nutrients. — These classes of compounds often are spoken 
of as nutrients. Although the term is used rather loosely, 
a nutrient may be defined as any feed constituent or group of 
constituents of the same general chemical composition that 
is capable of liberating energy or serving for the production 
of tissue in the animal body. In other words, it is any feed 
constituent or group of constituents which may aid in the 
support of animal hfe. Thus water, mineral matter, crude 
protein, carbohydrates, and fats are usually regarded as 
the nutrients of feedingstuffs. 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 3 

The elementary composition of these classes of com- 
pounds or nutrients is shown in the following diagram, which 
is a modification of a similar diagram presented by Jordan.^ 



All vegetable 

and animal 

matter 





WfltPr [Hydrogen 
^^*^^ I Oxygen 






Oxygen 


iTi/^t'oro m /> 




Sulphur 


lUOrgdULlC 

compounds 




Phosphorus 
Carbon 




Ash or mineral 


Chlorine 




matter 


Sodium 
Potassium 




[ 


Calcium 
Magnesium 
J Iron 

Carbon 
Hydrogen 




Crude protein < 


Oxygen 
Nitrogen 
Sulphur 2 
. Phosphorus ^ 


Organic 




Carbon 


compounds 


Carbohydrates < 


Hydrogen 
Oxygen 

' Carbon 




Fats < 


Hydrogen 






Oxygen 



The average chemical composition of feedingstuffs is given 
in Table 28 of the Appendix. 



WATER 



Water, composed of the elements hydrogen and oxygen, 
is present in variable amounts in all vegetable and animal 
substances. It forms a large portion of the weight of such 

1 " The Feeding of Animals," p. 30. ^ Generally. ^ Sometimes. 



4 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

substances as green plants, fresh meats, and milk, and in 
many cases it can be detected by sight and touch. Even 
substances like starch, bran, wood, straw, and corn, which 
appear to be quite dry, usually contain from 2 to 15 per cent 
of water. The water content of plants depends upon the 
species, the degree of maturity, and the amount of moisture 
in the soil. Thus fresh timothy grass contains about 60 per 
cent of water, while mangels contain 90 per cent; im- 
mature plants contain more water than mature ones; 
and plants grown in a moist soil contain more than those 
grown in a dry soil. Water in the plant acts as a solvei^t 
for the different forms of plant food and transfers them from 
one part of the plant to another. It also aids in imparting 
firmness and rigidity to the plant. This function is illus- 
trated well by the withering of a plant when its water is re- 
moved by evaporation or drying. 

Water in Feedingstuffs. — The stock-feeder should have a 
knowledge of the moisture content of feedingstuffs for at 
least two reasons : first, the amount of dry substance in a 
feed largely determines its nutritive value ; consequently 
in using feeds which contain large amounts of water, as 
silage, wet beet pulp, milk, wet brewers' grains, and mangels 
(stockbeets), one must feed a larger amount than when 
using feeds which are low in moisture content in order to 
supply the same amount of dry matter. Second, the keep- 
ing qualities of feeds depend largely upon their low water 
content. Such feedingstuffs as the hays, grains, meals, 
and oil cakes, when stored in bulk, are very liable to fer- 
ment or mold if they contain more than 18 to 20 per cent of 
moisture. This usually injures their quahty and decreases 
their nutritive value. 






THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 5 

The amount of moisture in a feedingstuff is determined 
in the chemical laboratory by drying a weighed sample of 
the feed in a drying oven at a temperature of 212° F. until 
all the water is driven off. The dried sample then is weighed, 
the loss in weight representing the amount of water driven 
off. The percentage of water is obtained by dividing the 
original weight of the sample into the weight of the water, 
and multiplying the result by 100. 

Table 1. — Percentages of Water in the Different Classes 
OF Feedingstuffs ^ 



Oil by-products 
PackirLghouse 
products . 
Oil-bearing seeds . 
Cereal by-products 
Cereal grains . . 
Straws .... 
Grass hays 
Leguminous seeds 



by- 



7 to 11 Leguminous hays . 9 to 15 

Stovers and fodders . 8 to 40 

7 to 11 Grass pastures . . 62 to 80 

8 to 9 Silage 70 to 80 

6 to 12 Leguminous pastures 70 to 85 
10 to 12 Roots 86 to 91 

7 to 16 Milk and milk-prod- 

7 to 15 ucts 87 to 94 

7 to 12 



Table 1 shows the average percentages of water occurring 
in the different classes of the common feedingstuffs. The 
data of this table show that the amounts of water in the 
different classes of feedingstuffs are quite variable. Milk 
and the root crops contain the largest amounts of water, 
— 86 to 94 per cent. Pastures and silage also contain large 
amounts, — 62 to 85 per cent. Stover and fodder contain 
from 8 to 40 per cent water. The amount may vary con- 
siderably, depending largely upon the method of curing. 
The hays, straws, and legume seeds all contain medium 
amounts of water, — 7 to 16 per cent, while the cereal 

^ These values represent the upper and lower limits of the average water 
content of the common feedingstuffs included under each class. For an 
explanation of thi^ classification of feedingstuffs, see Chapter IX. 



6 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

grains and oil-bearing seeds, and their by-products, and the 
packinghouse by-products contain the smallest amounts 
of water, — 7 to 12 per cent. 

MINERAL MATTER OR ASH 

The mineral matter or ash, as the name implies, is that 
part of the feed which remains after the combustion of the 
organic substances. Common ashes are an impure form 
of mineral matter. The ash consists principally of the 
elements, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and sodium, 
in the form of oxides, phosphates, sulphates, carbonates, and 
chlorides. However, the elements or radicles found in the 
ash are not necessarily in the same form or combination 
as those occurring in the living organism. In the unburned 
substance, some of these elements may occur in different 
inorganic combinations with each other, or in combination 
with organic substances. Thus sulphur occurs in many of 
the proteins, phosphorus occurs in some of the proteins 
and in other organic substances, and calcium often occurs 
in combination with organic acids. During the combus- 
tion of the feed the organic material is oxidized and driven 
off, leaving behind these elements in inorganic combination. 
Further, nitrates and nitrites occur in small quantities in 
growing plants and in animals, but by ignition in the prep- 
aration of the ash these acid radicles are decomposed and 
driven off while the metals of these salts are combined 
with other acid radicles. 

No parts or products of either plant or animal Hfe are 
free from mineral matter. It is an essential constituent 
of both plants and animals. The mineral elements po- 
tassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, oxygen, phosphorus, 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 7 

and sulphur are necessary for the proper growth and develop- 
ment of all agricultural plants and, in addition to these 
elements, sodium and chlorine are essential also for the 
nutrition of agricultural animals. 

The Mineral Constituents in Feedingstufifs. — In feed- 
ingstuffs, potassium is found in greatest amoimts in the 
roughages, as corn stover, hays, and straws. Fairly large 
quantities are found in the oil by-products, in wheat bran, 
in milk, in tankage, and in malt sprouts, while the ordinary 
cereal grains are deficient in this element. 

Calcium is especially abundant in bone meal, tankage, 
and leguminous hays, while the ordinary grains and many 
of their by-products are deficient. The rations of young 
growing animals and of dairy cows are liable to be deficient 
in this element. 

Magnesium is most abundant in the oil by-products 
and in wheat bran. It also occurs in considerable quantity 
in the legume hays and in the ordinary grains. The straws 
and roots are especially low in this element. 

The quantity of iron in feedingstuffs is very small in all 
cases, but it is probably always sufficient except under 
pathological conditions. 

The air is the source of the oxygen to the animal body. 

Phosphorus occurs abundantly in bone meal, tankage, bran, 
middlings, oil by-products, and legume seeds. The grains and 
legurtie hays contain medium amounts of this element, while 
dried blood, gluten meal, roots, and straws contain only 
small amounts. The rations of the young growing animal 
and of the dairy cow are apt to be deficient in phosphorus. 

Sulphur probably is found in small but sufficient quantities 
in all feedingstuffs. 



8 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Sodium and chlorine must be furnished to nearly all 
animals in the form of sodium chloride or common salt, 
as the ordinary feedingstuffs do not supply these elements 
in sufficient amounts. 

The amount of mineral matter or ash in a feedingstuff 
is determined by igniting a weighed sample of the feed 
until all organic matter has disappeared. The residue is 
ash or mineral matter. The weight of the ash divided 
by the original weight of the sample, and multiphed by 
100, gives the percentage of mineral matter. 

Table 2. — Percentages of Mineral Matter in the Different 

Classes of Feedingstuffs ^ 

Milk and milk prod- Oil-bearing seeds . 2.6 to 4.3 

nets .... 0.4 to 0.8 Straws . . . . 3.2 to 5.8 

Roots 0.8 to 1.2 Stovers and fodders 3.7 to 12.0 

Silage 1.1 to 2.8 Cereal by-products 1.0 to 6.2 

Grass pastures . . 1.0 to 2.8 Oil by-products . 4.0 to 6.7 

Cereal grains . . . 1.4 to 3.0 Grass hays . . . 3.9 to 7.9 

Leguminous pas- Leguminous hays . 6.7 to 10.7 

tures . . . . 1.3 to 3.5 Packinghouse by- 
Leguminous seeds . 2.6 to 5.4 products . . . 4.1 to 64.4 

Table 2 shows the average percentages of mineral matter 
in the different classes of feedingstuffs. This table shows 
that the packinghouse by-products are quite high in ash 
content, — 4.1 to 64.4 per cent. Especially is this true of 
bone meal and tankage, meat scrap and blood meal being 
only fairly high. Leguminous hays contain fairly large 
amounts, — 7 to 11 per cent, as also do the non-legume 
hays, the oil and cereal by-products, the straws, the oil- 
bearing seeds, and the legume seeds, — 2 to 8 per cent. 

1 These values represent the upper and lower limits of the average con- 
tent of mineral matter of the common feedingstuffs included under each 
class. 



\ 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 9 

As a rule, the cereal grains, silage, and roots, are quite low 
in ash, — 1 to 3 per cent. 

CRUDE PROTEIN 

Crude protein includes all the substances of the plant 
or animal which contain the element nitrogen. In general, 
crude protein consists of two sub-classes of substances : 
(1) proteins, often called true protein, and (2) non-proteins, 
which is an abbreviation for ^' non-protein nitrogen-contain- 
ing substances." 

Proteins. — In every living organism there are present 
highly complex, nitrogen-containing compounds to which 
the general name proteins has been given. These sub- 
stances form the chief part of the sohd matter of the blood, 
muscles, nerves, glands, and organs of the animal, and 
occur in smaller amounts in every part of plants, but es- 
pecially in the seeds. They form an essential part of the 
protoplasm of every cell, plant or animal. They also are 
important constituents of the cell wall of all animal cells, 
and are always present in the fluids which surround the 
cell. As a nutrient, the proteins occupy an important 
position, due to the fact that they are the only nutrient 
which contains nitrogen in forms available to the animal 
body. Thus, they are necessary not only for the growth 
and development, but also for the life, of every animal. 
Water ,^ mineral matter, and protein are absolutely essential 
constituents of the rations of all animals. An animal soon 
dies if water, mineral matter, or protein is withheld from 
the ration. If an insufficient amount of any of these nu- 
trients is given, the animal fails to develop properly, and 
in extreme cases dies. 



10 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

The proteins are composed of the elements carbon, 
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and usually sulphur in varying 
proportions. Some proteins also contain phosphorus, while 
other elements are found sometimes. The typical protein 
molecule usually contains from 15 to 19, or an average of 
16 per cent of nitrogen, 52 per cent of carbon, 7 per cent 
of hydrogen, 22 per cent of oxygen, and 0.5 to 2 per cent 
of sulphur. The chemical structure of the protein molecule 
is very complex, and neither the formulae nor molecular 
weights of any of the proteins have been determined defi- 
nitely. An idea of their complex nature may be obtained 
from the following approximate formulae of some common 
proteins : egg albumin, C696H1126N175S6O220 ; serum albumin, 
C694 H1045N175S2O225 ; oxyhemoglobin, C656Hii6iN207S2Fe02io. 

However, it has been determined that the complex pro- 
teins are made up of amino acids, which are comparatively 
simple organic acids in which one or two '' amino," or 
NH2 groups are substituted for an equal number of hydrogen 
atoms. There are 18 or more of these amino acids known. 
Some of them occur in all proteins; others are absent, or 
are present in only small amounts, in certain proteins. 
Furthermore, different proteins may be formed from the 
same amino acids arranged in different combinations. 
Thus one finds that the proteins are very numerous. The 
amino acids have been compared to the letters of the alphabet. 
" When they are arranged together they can make many 
different proteins just as there are many different words in 
the dictionary." ^ 

There are considerable differences in the nutritive values 
of the different amino acids, some of them being essential 

' Lusk, " The Basis of Nutrition," p. 17. 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 11 

to life itself, while others are essential to growth only. 
Therefore different proteins may differ considerably in 
nutritive value. For example, an animal will starve to 
death on the protein, gelatin, because it is lacking in two 
of the amino acids which are essential to the animal organ- 
ism, viz., tyrosine, and tryptophane. Another example is 
zein, the principal protein of corn, which is lacking in two 
essential amino acids, lysine and tryptophane. Conse- 
quently, in practical feeding it is well that the feeder 
should know something about the amino acid content of 
the proteins in order to make sure that he is providing the 
proper kind as well as the proper amount of protein in 
the ration. 

Non-proteins. — The non-proteins are substances which 
contain^ the element nitrogen but which are not proteins. 
In most cases, the non-proteins are simply proteins in the 
process of formation or decomposition. They consist, 
principally, of amino acids, amides, ammonia, and other 
compounds, which nature ultimately would build up into 
the complex proteins ; or else they are the products of 
complex proteins which have been decomposed and broken 
down with the formation of amino acids and other simpler 
substances. Thus non-proteins are especially abundant 
in immature plants, where the protein formation has not 
been completed, and in fermented feeds, as silage, where 
the proteins have been decomposed partially. Ripe grains 
are comparatively low in them. The nutritive value of 
a proper mixture of the non-proteins is equal to that of the 
true proteins. However, if they are not present in the 
proper proportions, the non-proteins will not be as valuable 
as most proteins. 



12 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Crude Protein in Feedingstuffs. — In the ordinary analysis 
of feedingstuffs, the proteins and the non-proteins are not 
determined separately, but they are determined together 
as crude protein. The chemical determination of crude 
protein is based upon the fact already noted, that proteins 
contain an average of 16 per cent of nitrogen. Thus to 
determine the amount of crude protein in a feedingstuff, 
the amount of total nitrogen in a weighed sample is found 
and then multiplied by 6.25 to obtain the amount of crude 
protein in the sample. (If 16 per cent of the weight of 
protein consists of nitrogen, to find the weight of the total 
protein, one multiplies the weight of the nitrogen by the 
number of times 16 per cent is contained in 100 per cent, 
or by 6.25.) The calculated weight of the crude protein, 
divided by the weight of the sample and multiplied by 100, 
gives the percentage of crude protein in the sample. 

Crude protein usually is the most expensive nutrient to 
buy or produce and the one most often lacking in farm 
rations, especially in the corn-belt, where corn is the prin- 
cipal crop. Table 3 shows the average percentages of crude 
protein in the different classes of ordinary feedingstuffs. 
The packinghouse by-products, as dried blood, tankage, 
and meat scraps, contain the largest amounts of crude 
protein, — 24 to 84 per cent. Then follow in approximately 
the order named, the various oil by-products, — 18 to 45 
per cent ; leguminous seeds, — 20 to 36 per cent ; the oil- 
bearing seeds, — 16 to 23 per cent ; the cereal by-products, 
— 10 to 31 per cent ; and the legume hays, — 13 to 19 per 
cent. The cereal grains are only medium in protein con- 
tent, — 9 to 12 per cent. The non-leguminous hays, straws, 
fodder, stover, fresh grasses, silage, and roots contain the 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 13 

smallest amounts of crude protein, in most cases ranging 
from 1 to 7 per cent. 



Table 3. — Percentages of Crude Protein in the Different 
Classes of Feedingstuffs ^ 



Roots 1 to 2 Cereal grains 



Silage ...... 1 to 3 

Grass pastures . . . 1 to 3 
Milk and milk-prod- 
ucts 3 to 4 

Straws 3 to 9 

Leguminous pastures . 3 to 5 

Stovers and fodders . 4 to 13 

Grass hays .... 5 to 9 



Leguminous hays 
Cereal by-products 
Oil-bearing seeds . 
Leguminous seeds 
Oil by-products 
Packinghouse by 
products . . . 



9 to 12 
13 to 13 
10 to 19 
16 to 23 
20 to 36 
18 to 45 

24 to 84 



CARBOHYDRATES 

The carbohydrates are of very great importance to plant 
life. They are the most abundant constituent of the vege- 
table kingdom. They not only make up the cell walls 
of the plant, but it is in the form of carbohydrates that 
most plants store up reserve food material in the cell itself. 
They are present also in very minute amounts in many 
animal tissues in the form of glycogen or animal starch. 
Glycogen is found in largest amounts in the liver. A small 
amount of the sugar glucose is usually found in the blood 
and muscles. Carbohydrates are the most abundant 
nutrient in most feedingstuffs, which fact, together with 
their relative cheapness, makes them of especial importance 
to the stock-feeder. 

Famihar forms of the carbohydrates are glucose or grape 
sugar, sucrose or cane sugar, lactose or milk sugar, the starches, 
as corn, ivheat, and potato starch, and cellulose or vegetable fiber. 



1 These values represent the upper and lower limits of the average crude 
protein content of the common feedingstuffs included under each class. 



14 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

All carbohydrates are composed of the three elements 
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the two latter generally 
being in the proportion to form water {i.e. there are twice 
as many atoms of hydrogen as of oxygen in the molecule), 
from which the name, carbohydrate, is derived. Thus the 
chemical formula of glucose is C6H12O6, of sucrose, C12H22O11, 
and of starch, (CeHioOs)^. As indicated by these formulae, 
some of the carbohydrates are comparatively simple com- 
pounds, others are more complex, while still others are very 
complex. Glucose or grape sugar and fructose or fruit 
sugar are the simplest carbohydrates of importance. They 
are represented by the chemical formula, C6H12O6. Sucrose 
or cane sugar, lactose or milk sugar, and maltose or malt 
sugar are more complex compounds as indicated by the 
formula C12H22O11. The starches, celluloses, dextrins, etc., 
are complex carbohydrates, having the formula (C6Hio06)n) 
the n representing an unknown number. The pentosans 
are complex carbohydrates having the formula (C5H804)„. 
Under the proper conditions, the complex carbohydrates 
can be changed to the simpler forms. Further reference 
will be made to this fact under the discussion of the digestion 
of the carbohydrates. 

On account of their difference in solubility and nutritive 
value, chemists usually divide the carbohydrates of feeding- 
stuffs into two sub-classes, nitrogen-free extract and crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen-free Extract. — The nitrogen-free extract con- 
sists largely of starches and sugars, with small amounts of 
less important carbohydrates, such as the pentosans. Starch 
is the principal carbohydrate found in the nitrogen-free 
extract of most feedingstuffs. It is found especially in the 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 15 

seeds of plants, as in the cereal grains. The sugars are 
found principally in the stem and roots of certain plants, 
as in sorghum and sugar beets. 

In addition to the carbohydrates, the nitrogen-free extract 
usually contains small amounts of organic acids and other 
substances which are not carbohydrates. Especially is 
this true in the case of fermented feeds, such as silage. 
The organic acids and other substances, owing to their 
small amounts, possess only a small nutritive value, but 
they may have an important indirect influence upon the 
value of a feed by increasing or decreasing its palatabihty, 
or through some special physiological effect. 

Nitrogen-free Extract in Feedingstuffs. — The percentage 
of nitrogen-free extract in a feecUngstuff is obtained by add- 
ing together the percentages of water, mineral matter, crude 
protein, fat, and crude fiber, and subtracting the total from 
100. 

Nitrogen-free extract is the most abundant and the cheap- 
est nutrient produced in the corn-belt. The cereal grains 
contain the largest amounts of nitrogen-free extract, — 
60 to 75 per cent, although the root crops, when calculated 
on the water-free basis,. also contain large amounts. The by- 
products of the cereal grains contain considerable nitrogen- 
free extract, — 39 to 65 per cent. The legume seeds, the 
oil-bearing seeds and their by-products, and the hays, 
straws,^ fodders, and stovers, contain medium amounts, — 
23 to 52 per cent. Green pasture grasses and silage contain 
small amounts, — 6 to 20 per cent, while the packinghouse 
by-products contain Httle or no nitrogen-free extract. 

The average percentages of nitrogen-free extract in the 
various classes of feedingstuffs are given in Table 4. 



16 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Table 4. 



- Percentages of Nitrogen-free Extract in the 
Different Classes of Feedingstuffs ^ 



Packinghouse by-prod- 
ucts to 4 

Milk and milk-prod- 
ucts 4 to 5 

Roots 5 to 7 

Leguminous pastures 6 to 14 

Silage 7 to 15 

Grass pastures . . Z to 20 

Oil-bearing seeds . 21 to 28 



Oil by-products . . 25 to 43 



Leguminous hays 
Straws .... 
Grass hays . 
Stovers and fodders 
Leguminous seeds 
Cereal by-products 
Cereal grains . . 



31 to 44 
23 to 47 
37 to 49 
30 to 52 
14 to 58 
39 to 65 
60 to 75 



Crude Fiber. — Crude fiber is the tough, woody, fibrous 
portion of plants. It is made up principally of cellulose 
and other similar substances, together with some pentosans. 
Cellulose is composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, 
and oxygen, and is one of the complex carbohydrates. It 
forms the groundwork of all vegetable tissues, the walls 
of all plant cells consisting of cellulose. Thus it is found 
in all parts of the plant as an essential constituent of every 
plant cell. It is seldom found pure in nature, except in 
the young and tender parts of plants, but usually it is im- 
pregnated more or less ^vith lignin, which is a carbohydrate 
that is similar to, but harder and tougher than, cellulose. 

The proportion of crude fiber in plants varies greatly 
with the species, size, and degree of maturity of the plant. 
As a rule, large plants contain more than small plants, 
and mature plants contain more than immature ones. In 
general, the hardness and toughness of large or mature 
plants are due to their increased content of crude fiber. Also 
the proportions of crude fiber in the different parts of the 

1 These values represent the upper and lower limits of the average con- 
tent of nitrogen-free extract of the common feedingstuffs included under each 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 17 

same plant are greatly unlike. It is usually most abundant 
in the stem, with less in the fohage, and least in the seed. 
In the grains and seeds, the seed coats consist largely of 
cellulose, while but Uttle is found in the interior. Cellulose 
is never found in the animal body. 

Familiar forms of crude fiber are paper, made from the 
fiber of straw, flax, wood, or hemp ; cloth, made from the 
fiber of cotton, flax, etc. ; and rope, made from the fiber of 
hemp. 

Crude Fiber in Feedingstufifs. — The crude fiber in feed- 
ingstuffs is determined by removing all other substances, 
in so far as possible, by boihng a weighed sample of the feed 
in dilute acid, then in dilute alkah, and then washing it 
with water, alcohol, and ether. The residue, consisting of 
crude fiber and ash, is dried and weighed. It is then 
ignited, and the ash is weighed. The weight of the ash 
deducted from the weight of the total residue represents^ 
the weight of crude fiber. The weight of the original 
sample divided into the weight of the crude fiber and 
multipHed by 100 gives the percentage of crude fiber in 
the feedingstuff. 

The average percentages of crude fiber in the various 
classes of ordinary feedingstuff s are shown in Table 5. It 
is especially abundant in the husks of grains and seeds, as 
barley, oat, and cottonseed hulls, — 40 to 46 per cent, and 
in straws, hays, stover, and fodder, — 20 to 45 per cent. 
Inasmuch as the percentage of crude fiber is higher in mature 
than in immature plants, the late cut' roughages contain 
more crude fiber than early cut roughages. The cereal 
grains and most of their by-products contain a relatively 
small amount,. — 1 to 12 per cent, while feedingstuffs of 



18 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



animal origin, as milk, dried blood, tankage, meat scraps, 
and bone meal, usually contain less than 4 per cent, unless 
they have been adulterated, as is sometimes the case. 



Table 5. 



Percentages of Crude Fiber in the Different 
Classes of Feedingstuffs ^ 



Milk and milk-prod- 
ucts none 

Roots 1 to 2 

Packinghouse by-prod- 
ucts to 4 

Cereal grains . . . 1 to 11 

Leguminous pastures 4 to 8 

Leguminous seeds . 4 to 8 

Silage 6 to 10 



Oil by-products 
Cereal by-products 
Grass pastures 
Oil-bearing seeds , 
Stovers and fodders 
Leguminous hays 
Grass hays . 
Straws .... 



6 to 26 
2 to 22 
4 to 12 

7 to 30 
15 to 29 
20 to 29 
25 to 36 
36 to 45 



FAT OR ETHER EXTRACT 

The fats are distributed widely in both plant and animal 
life. They occur in nearly all plants, but in smaller amounts 
than the carbohydrates. They are found most abundantly 
in the seeds. Some plants, such as flax, cotton, the peanut, 
and the soybean, store their reserve food material in the 
seeds largely as fat, rather than as carbohydrates. In the 
animal, fats occur in almost every organ and cell. They 
are especially abundant in the fatty tissues of the abdominal 
cavity, in the subcutaneous tissues, and in the bone marrow. 
The animal body stores its reserve food mainly in the form 
of fat. 

Chemically, fats are composed of the elements carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen. C'ompared with crude protein and 
carbohydrates, fats are considerably richer in carbon and 
hydrogen and poorer in oxygen. The average percentages 

1 These values represent the upper and lower limits of the average content 
of crude fiber of the common feedingstuffs included under each class. 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 19 

of these eiements found in the most abundant fats as com- 
pared ^N\i]\ the percentages found in glucose, a carbohydrate, 
and with the average percentages found in the simple pro- 
teins, are as follows : 





Carbon 


Hydrogen 


Oxygen 


Fats 

Glucose 

Proteins 


76.5 
40.0 
52.0 


12.0 
6.7 
7.0 


11.5 
53.3 
22.0 



On combustion, therefore, the fats are capable of liberating 
more energy than the carbohydrates and proteins. Conse- 
quently fats are of particular importance as a means of 
storing reserve food. About two and one-quarter times as 
much energy can be stored in a given amount of fat as in 
the same amount of carbohydrates. 

Fats are compounds or salts formed by the combination 
of fatty acids and glycerin. Thus the fat, palmitin, is formed 
by the combination of glycerin and palmitic acid according 
to the following formula : 



C3H5 



OH 

OH 

[OH 

Glycerin 



HO.CO.C15H31 
HO.CO.C15H31 

HO.CO.C15H31 

Palmitic acid 



f O.CO.C15H31 
C3H5I O.CO.C15H31+3H2O 

O.CO.C15H31 

Palmitin 



A fat which is Hquid at ordinary temperatures is known as 
an oil. The most important animal fats are stearin and 
valmitin, which predominate in the more solid fats, as 
mutton and beef tallow; and olei7i, which predominates in 
the more liquid fats, as cod liver oil. These fats are also 
included in many vegetable fats. A great variety of other 



20 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

fats are found in plants and animals. Among these the 
so-called drying and semi-drying oils are of interest, inas- 
much as they have the power to dry and harden upon ex- 
posure to air, Hght, and moisture. This is especially true 
of the drying oils, of which Unseed oil is the most important 
example. Consequently, the drying oils are used in paint- 
ing. Cottonseed oil and corn oil are examples of semi- 
drying oils. 

When a fat is heated with an alkali, such as caustic soda, 
the fat is broken up, setting the glycerin free, and the fatty 
acid is united with the metal of the alkah to form a soap. 
This process is called saponification. Advantage is taken 
of this property of fats in the manufacture of common soap 
on the farm, the alkah in the lye acting upon the fat of 
the animal refuse with the formation of soap. Potassium 
soaps are soft, while sodium soaps are hard. By treating a 
soap with mineral acid the soap is decomposed and the 
fatty acid is set free. 

When exposed to the action of moisture, air, and hght, 
fats gradually acquire a disagreeable odor, an acrid taste, 
and become acid in reaction. They are then said to be 
rancid. When ground feedingstuffs containing considerable 
fat, such as corn meal, soybean meal, oil meal, etc., are 
stored they gradually become rancid and consequently un- 
palatable to animals. 

The waxes, such as lanolin, or wool fat, beeswax, and 
syerm oil, are closely related to the fats. They consist of 
combinations of fatty acids and some of the higher 
alcohols. 

The phosphatides, also, are closely related to the fats. In 
addition to containing fatty acids and glycerin, they also 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 21 

contain phosphoric acid and some nitrogen-containing com- 
pounds. They are found in the protoplasm of all cells. 
They occur most abundantly in the brain, nerves, heart, 
and blood corpuscles, in milk and eggs, and in the seeds of 
all the cereals. Although little is definitely known of their 
functions, yet they are among the most important substances 
in hving matter, being essential components of all hving 
cells. 

Fat in Feedingstufifs. — The quantity of fat in a feeding- 
stuff usually is determined by extracting a finely ground, 
dried, weighed sample of the feed with ether, which dis- 
solves out the fat. The ether is then evaporated off and 
the residue of fat is weighed. The weight of the fat divided 
by the weight of the sample and multiplied by 100 gives 
the per cent of fat. However, not only fats, but other sub- 
stances, such as waxes, chlorophyll, and some of the organic 
acids also, are extracted from the feedingstuff by the ether. 
This is true especially in the case of roughages, such as hay, 
fodder, and silage. Thus the extract is often spoken of 
as crude fat, or ether extract. 

Of the feedingstuffs, the oily seeds, as flaxseed and cotton- 
seed, and the waste animal products, as tankage and crack- 
lings, contain the most fat, — 12 to 35 per cent. The oil 
by-products contain a medium amount, — 3 to 13 per cent. 
Of the ordinary grains, corn contains the largest amount, 
— 5.0 sper cent. Non-leguminous hays, straws, roots, and 
the fresh pasture grasses contain the smallest amounts of 
fat, — 0.1 to 3 per cent. 

The average percentages of fat or ether extract in the 
various classes of the ordinary feedingstuffs are shown in 
Table 6. 



22 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Table 6. 



Percentages of Fat in the Different Classes of 
Feedingstuffs ^ 



Roots 0.1 to 0.4 

Silage 0.3 to 2.2 

Leguminous pastures 0.4 to 1.1 
Grass pastures . . 0.3 to 1.3 
Milk and milk-prod- 
ucts 0.1 to 3.7 

Stovers and fodders . 1.0 to 5.0 

Straws 1.2 to 2.3 

Grass hays . . , 1.3 to 3.0 



Leguminous hays . 
Cereal grains . 
Leguminous seeds 
Cereal by-products 
Oil by-products 
Packinghouse by- 
products 
Oil-bearing seeds . 



1.9 to 5.2 
1.7 to 5.0 
1.0 to 42.6 
1.3 to 10.6 
2.7 to 12.6 

0.3 to 13.7 
20.0 to 34.0 



ACCESSORY SUBSTANCES IN THE RATION 

Vitamines. — In their discussion of the question of the 
vitamines in the diet, Osborne and Mendel ^ have made 
the following statement : '' The researches which have been 
devoted in recent years to certain diseases, notably beri 
beri, have made it more than probable that there are condi- 
tions of nutrition during which certain essential, but, as 
yet unknown, substances must be supplied in the diet if 
nutritive disaster is to be avoided. These substances 
apparently do not belong to the category of the ordinary 
nutrients, and do not fulfill their physiological mission 
because of the energy which they supply. Funk has pro- 
posed the name vitamine for the type of substance thus 
represented." But little is definitely known of the chemical 
composition and chemical properties of the so-called vita- 
mines. However, it is known that certain substances, in 
addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and mineral matter, 
are essential to proper nutrition. The disease beri beri in 
man is said to be caused by a diet of polished rice which 

1 These values represent the upper and lower limits of the average fat con- 
tent of the common feedingstuffs included under each class. 

2 Jour, of Biol. Chem. XVI, 1913-1914, p. 423. 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 23 

is deficient in certain of these unknown chemical compounds, 
the vitamines. Also beri beri may be caused by a diet of 
bread and macaroni from highly milled wheat flour. How- 
ever, unpolished rice, or polished rice and rice bran, or 
whole wheat flour do not produce beri beri, indicating that 
the so-called vitamines are present in the outside coats of 
rice and wheat. 

McCollum and Davis ^ fed mixtures of casein (a complete 
protein), carbohydrates, and mineral matter to young rats. 
Normal growth ensued for 3 to 4 months but then ceased. 
The addition to the ration of butter fat, egg-yolk fat, kidney 
fat (fat from the kidney itself, not the fat surrounding the 
kidney), fat from corn, or fat from wheat germ caused 
normal growth. However, the addition of lard, olive oil, 
cottonseed oil, or tallow did not add to the value of the 
basal ration. Later Osborne and Mendel ^ found that cod 
liver oil and the fighter oils of beef fat, added to the basal 
ration, produce normal growth, but they are not as efficient 
for this purpose as is butter fat, as larger amounts are re- 
quired for normal growth. 

Little or nothing is definitely known at this time as to the 
chemical composition, properties, and occurrence of these 
substances, or vitamines. However, they apparently play 
a very important role in nutrition. 

It is difficult to say at the present time whether further 
knowledge of the vitamines will have any practical value in 
the feeding of farm animals. It is quite probable that it 
may, particularly in the case of hogs, where there ordinarily 

1 Jour, of Biol. Chem. XV, 1913, p. 167 ; XIX, 1914, pp. 245 and 373 ; 
XX, 1915, p. 641; XXI, 1915, p. 179; XXIII, 1915, pp. 181 and 231. 

2 Jour, of Biol. Cfcem. XVII, 1914, p. 401. 



24 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

is not much variety in the ration. Such knowledge may 
help to explain why some feeds, such as wheat bran, have 
a nutritive value much higher than their gross chemical 
composition and energy values indicate. A study of the 
vitamines is certainly of practical importance in human 
nutrition and may shed further light upon the causes and 
remedies of such nutritional diseases as beri beri, pellagra, 
and scurvy. 



CHAPTER II 

THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FARM 
ANIMALS 

The animal body is the product of the feed which the 
animal consumes. Thus, having discussed briefly the dif- 
ferent classes of compounds which are found in feedingstuffs, 
it is of importance to consider the composition of the animal 
body which is formed from them. 

Although the chemical analysis of an entire animal is very 
much more difficult than the analysis of a feedingstuff , still 
considerable work has been done upon cattle, sheep, and 
hogs of different ages and degrees of fatness. Lawes and 
Gilbert, of the Rothamsted (England) Experiment Station,^ 
carried on the first and most elaborate investigations upon 
the chemical composition of farm animals. They analyzed a 
fat calf, a half -fat steer, a fat steer, a fat lamb, a thin sheep, 
a half-fat sheep, an extra fat sheep, a thin hog, and a fat 
hog. Jordan, at the Maine Experiment Station,^ analyzed 
two thin and two fat steers. Trowbridge, at the Missouri 
Experiment Station,^ analyzed six thin steers. Emmett and 
Grindley, at the Illinois Experiment Station,"^ analyzed two 
thin pigs and five fat hogs. Haecker,^ at the Minnesota 
Station, analyzed two new-born calves and forty-five steers 

1 Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London, 1859. 

2 Annual Report, 1895. 

3 Proceedings of the American Society for Animal Nutrition, 1910. 
^ Unpublished data. 

5 Proceedings of the American Society for Animal Production, 1914, 
and unpublished data. 

25 



26 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



in good condition, ranging in weight from 100 to 1500 
pounds. Table 7 compiled from these results shows the 
average composition of the common meat-producing animals 
under varying conditions of fatness. 

Table 7. — Average Composition of Meat-producing Animals^ 







No. 










Animal 


Condition 


An- 
alyzed 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 
Per cent 


Ash 






Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Calf . . 


at birth . . . 


2 


72.1 


19.5 


4.8 


3.9 


Calf 






fat . . . 






1 


63.0 


15.2 


14.8 


7.0 


Calf 






good, 100 lb 






5 


71.8 


19.9 


4.0 


4.3 


Calf 






good, 200 lb 






4 


69.5 


19.6 


6.3 


4.6 


Calf 






good, 300 1b 






3 


66.3 


19.4 


9.8 


4.5 


Calf 






good, 400 1b 






5 


65.8 


19.3 


10.6 


4.4 


Calf 






good, 500 1b 






5 


62.9 


19.2 


13.7 


4.2 


Steer 






good, 600 1b 






3 


62.0 


19.2 


14.0 


4.6 


Steer 






good, 700 lb 






6 


60.7 


18.8 


15.9 


4.5 


Steer 






good, 800 1b 






4 


57.9 


18.7 


19.2 


4.2 


Steer 






good, 900 1b 






3 


54.1 


17.7 


24.1 


4.2 


Steer 






good, 1000 lb 






2 


53.0 


17.6 


255 


3.8 


Steer 






good, 1100 lb 






1 


48.0 


16.2 


31.9 


3.9 


Steer 






good, 1200 lb 






2 


48.6 


16.6 


31.1 


3.7 


Steer 






good, 1400 lb 






1 


47.8 


16.1 


32.6 


3.5 


Steer 






good, 1500 lb 






1 


43.5 


15.7 


37.7 


3.2 


Steer 






very thin . 






1 


69.2 


21.0 


2.2 


7.0 


Steer 






thin 






4 


60.1 


19.3 


14.4 


5.4 


Steer 






half-fat . 






4 


56.4 


17.6 


19.1 


4.8 


Steer 






fat . . . 






3 


50.7 


15.9 


26.6 


4.7 


Lamb 






fat . . . 






1 


47.8 


12.3 


28.5 


2.9 


Sheep 






thin . . . 






1 


57.3 


14.8 


18.7 


3.2 


Sheep 






half-fat . 






1 


50.2 


14.0 


23.5 


3.2 


Sheep 






fat . . . 






1 


43.2 


12.2 


35.6 


2.8 


Sheep 






very fat . 






1 


35.2 


10.9 


45.8 


2.9 


Pig 2 






4 mos., thin 






2 


61.7 


15.5 


19.0 


3.2 


Hog 






thin . 






3 


59.5 


14.9 


20.5 


3.0 


Hog 






fat . . . 






6 


45.0 


13.8 


38.0 


3.5 



1 Not including the contents of the stomach and intestines. 

2 Included also in the next average. 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS 27 

Water. — As shown by the table, water is an essential 
and abundant constituent of the animal body, varying in 
amount from 35 per cent in case of a very fat sheep to 72 
per cent in case of the new-born calves. The blood, which 
forms from 3 to 10 per cent of the body weight, is 80 per cent 
water. The tissues, excluding the fatty tissues and the 
bones, contain from 50 to 85 per cent water, while the 
skeleton contains from 30 to 60 per cent water. In general, 
somewhat more than half of the weight of our farm animals 
consists of water. The percentage of water in the bodies 
of animals varies with their species, condition, and age. A 
study of the data presented in Table 7 shows that, in general, 
cattle contain more water than sheep and hogs. It shows 
further that fat animals contain considerably less water 
than thin animals of the same age and species. Other 
things being equal, the fatter the animal the smaller is the 
percentage of water which it contains. This explains in 
large part why pork and mutton usually contain less water 
than beef. The calves, the lamb, and the four-month-old 
pigs show a considerably higher water content than more 
mature animals of the same species. Other things being 
equal, the younger the animal, the more water it contains. 
This is shown very well by Figure 1, made by Professor 
Haecker from his results upon the composition of steers of 
different ages. It is a matter of common observation that 
veal and^lamb contain more water than beef and mutton, 
respectively. 

Mineral Matter or Ash. — The farm animals usually 
contain 3 to 5 per cent of mineral matter. By far the largest 
amount of mineral matter in the animal body is found in 
the bones, while smaller amounts occur in the protein tissues 



28 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

and body fluids. Calcium is the most abundant constituent 
of the mineral matter of the body forming more than half 
of it. It is found especially in the bones in the form of 
phosphates. Phosphorus is found also in the active tissues, 
in the body fluids, and in some of the proteins and other 
complex compounds. Potassium is found especially in the 
lean tissues, as the muscles, organs, blood corpuscles, etc. 
Magnesium is quite generally distributed throughout the 
body. Sodium, in the form of sodium chloride, is found 
especially in the body fluids. Sulphur occurs in many of the 
proteins, especially in wool, hair, hoof, and horn. Inasmuch 
as the fatty tissue contains only a small amount of mineral 
matter, the percentage of mineral matter in the animal body 
varies inversely with the degree of fatness, i.e. fat animals 
contain a lower per cent of mineral matter than lean ones, 
and vice versa. Thus the percentages of mineral matter are 
less in hogs and sheep than in cattle, which ordinarily con- 
tain less fat. 

Fat. — Under normal conditions fat occurs in nearly 
every organ and cell of the animal body. It is especially 
abundant in the connective tissues of the abdominal cavity, 
in the subcutaneous tissues, and in the bone marrow. Large 
quantities of fat may be stored by the animal as reserve food 
material. In fairly mature animals in good condition, fat 
next to water is ordinarily the most abundant substance of 
the animal body. Fat hogs usually contain about 38 per 
cent, fat sheep about 36 to 46 per cent, and fat steers about 
24 to 38 per cent fat. Thin hogs and sheep contain about 
20 per cent, and thin cattle about 14 per cent fat. The fat 
calf and the fat lamb contain less fat than more mature 
animals of the same species in similar condition. Other 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS 29 

things being equal, mature animals usually contain a larger 
per cent of fat than immature ones. In case of cattle this 
is clearly shown by Figure 1. 

COMPOSITION OF STEERS 

FROM 100 TO laOO POUNDS 
BODY LESS WASTE BASIS 




100 200 300 400 SOO 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 



^ 



FAT 



PROTEIN 



ASH 



m 



WATER 



Fig. 1. — Composition of steers from 100 to 1200 pounds. (Minnesota 
Experiment Station.) 

Protein. — As previously stated, proteins occur as an 
essential part of every animal cell, and in the fluids sur- 
rounding the cell. They form the chief part of the dry 
substance of the blood, muscles, nerves, glands, skin, hair, 
horns, and hoofs of the animal. In amount, protein usually 
ranks next to fat, although in very lean or in young animals 



30 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

it may rank next to water. Fat cattle contain about 16 per 
cent, fat sheep about 12 per cent, and fat hogs about 14 
per cent of protein. Thin cattle contain approximately 20 
per cent, thin sheep about 15 per cent, and thin hogs about 
15 per cent of protein. The fat calf and fat lamb contain 
about 20 per cent and 12 per cent of protein, respectively. 
In general, the fatter the animal, the lower is the per cent 
of protein. Thus cattle usually contain more protein than 
sheep and hogs. It may be noted also that the protein 
content of the animal varies directly with the water and ash 
content because considerable quantities of these two classes 
of compounds are always found associated with the proteins. 
As shown by Figure 1 , the percentage of protein in the body 
decreases shghtly with increasing maturity. 

Carbohydrates. — The animal body contains a very small 
per cent of carbohydrates in the form of glycogen or ''animal 
starch," as it is sometimes called. It is stored up especially 
in the liver which ordinarily contains from 1 to 4 per cent 
and in smaller amounts in the muscles. There is also a small 
amount of glucose in the blood and muscles. In the ordinary 
analysis of the animal body, the amount of carbohydrates is 
not determined. 

Composition of Increase in Body Weight. — The feeding 
of meat-producing animals usually has as its primary object 
the increase of the body weight of the animal. The increase 
in body weight also is the primary object of feeding all 
growing animals. Gain in body weight is due ordinarily 
to one or both of two factors, growth and fattening. 

Growth consists of an increase of the structural com- 
ponents of the body, chiefly by cell multiplication, resulting 
in a gain in size and weight. Inasmuch as the dry substance 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS 31 

of the structural components consists principally of protein 
material, growth may be defined as an increase in the pro- 
tein tissue of the body. For the purposes of this book any 
tissue, the dry substance of which is composed largely of 
proteins, may be considered as protein tissue. It should be 
noted that any increase in protein is always accompanied 
by a large amount of water and a small amount of mineral 
matter. Any considerable fat production accompanying 
the increase in protein tissue may be regarded as incidental, 
its amount depending upon the amount and nature of the 
feed. 

Fattening consists in the deposition of fat in the cells 
already present in the body, most largely in the cells of the 
loose connective tissue. During the process the cytoplasm and 
nucleus are pressed to one side and the cell wall may be 
greatly distended. The main object of fattening is not the 
storage of a large amount of fat for the nutritive value which 
the fat contains, but to improve the flavor, tenderness, and 
quality of the lean meat by the deposition of fat between the 
muscular fibers. This mixture of fat and lean is much de- 
sired by the butcher and consumer. It is known as 
*' marbhng." Figure 2 shows the desired marbhng in a 
porterhouse steak from a prime steer carcass. 

Just as the normal production of protein tissue during 
growth is accompanied by the production of more or less 
fatty tissue {i.e. tissue the dry substance of which is com- 
posed largely of fat) so also a fattening animal, unless quite 
mature, continues to grow while being fattened. Thus the 
two processes of growth and fattening shade into each other 
and no sharp distinction can be made between them, as in 
many cases both processes are taking place at the same time. 



32 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



The chemical composition of the increase depends largely 
upon the proportion of growth to fattening. When the 
increase is due principally to growth, it consists largely of 
water and protein, together with a small amount of mineral 
matter. When the increase is due principally to fattening, 
it consists largely of fat with only a small amount of water. 




Fig. 2. 



Porterhouse steak from a prime steer. Note the "marbling." 
(Illinois Experiment Station.) 



Thus an increase in the weight of a calf, unless fed quite 
liberally, is due largely to a storage of protein and water 
together, with a relatively small amount of fat. On the 
other hand, the gain in weight of a two-year-old steer is 
due largely to a storage of fat, with only a relatively small 
amount of water and protein. This is brought out quite 
clearly by the results of Waters, Mumford, and Trowbridge 
at the Missouri Station.^ These investigators found that the 

1 Henry and Morrison, " Feeds and Feeding," p. 84. 



THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS 33 

chemical compositions of the first 500 pounds of gain and the 
second 500 pounds of gain by fattening steers were as follows : 





First 500 


Second 500 




Pounds op Gain 


Pounds of Gain 




Per cent 


Per cent 


Water 


37.6 


17.8 


Mineral matter .... 


2.0 


1.5 


Fat 


48.6 


75.6 


Protein 


11.9 


5.2 



CHAPTER III 
THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 

In order that the nutrients of the feedingstuffs may be 
made available for the nutrition of the animal body, they 
first must undergo digestion. Digestion is the process by 
which the digestive agents change into forms which are 
soluble, diffusible, and available to the tissues such por- 
tions of the feed as are capable of such changes in the diges- 
tive tract. However, portions of the feed which are really 
capable of digestion often are not digested. Their escape 
may be merely a matter of chance. 

The Digestive System. — The digestive system consists 
of the organs concerned in the reception and digestion of 
the feed, in the passage of the feed through the animal body, 
and in the excretion of the unabsorbed residue. For con- 
venience in study, the digestive system may be divided into 
the alimentary canal and the accessory organs of digestion. 
The alimentary canal, or alimentary tract as it is often called, 
is the passage which begins with the mouth, includes the 
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and ends 
with the anus. These divisions are shown schematically in 
Figure 3. 

The esophagus or gullet is the tube-like passage which 
leads from the mouth to the stomach. In the horse and 
hog the stomach consists of a single pear-shaped sac which 
has a capacity in the horse of 3 to 4 gallons and in the hog of 

34 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 



35 



IJ to 2 gallons. The stomach of a horse is shown in Figure 

4. In the ruminants or cud-chewing animals, as the cow 

and sheep, the stomach is modified 

considerably and much enlarged in 

order to handle the large amount of 

roughage which these animals ordinarily 

consume. The stomach of ruminants 

consists of four divisions, as follows : 

(1) the rumen or paunch; (2) the 

reticulum or honey comb ; (3) the 

omasmn or many plies ; and (4) the 

ahomasum or true stomach. In cattle 

of medium size the stomach holds 30 

to 40 gallons, in large animals, 40 to 60, 

and in small, 25 to 35. In mature 

cattle the rumen constitutes about 80 

per cent, the reticulum 5 per cent, the 

omasum 7 or 8 per cent, and the 

abomasum 8 or 7 per cent of the total 

capacity of the entire stomach. In 

sheep the total capacity of the ^stomach 

is 4 to 5 gallons. The rumen or paunch 

is a very large sac used mainly for the 

temporary storage of the partially mas- 

ticated^feed. It connects directly with 

the reticulum and omasum, which are 

much smaller sacs. The reticulum and 

omasum besides connecting with the rumen and each other, 

also connect directly with the esophagus. The omasum 

has a great number of large, fleshy projections or leaves, 

resembling huge wrinkles upon the inside, from which it 




Fig. 3. — Digestive 
tract of man. (Paton, 
Veterinary Physiol- 
ogy.) Ph - pharynx ; 
r-tongue; S.G.- 
salivary glands ; Oe - 
esophagus ; c - cardiac 
region of stomach ; Py - 
pyloric region of stom- 
ach ; Li - liver ; P - pan- 
creas ; Z) - duodenum ; / 
- jejunum ; / - ileum ; 
V - vermiform ap- 
pendix ; Col - colon ; R - 
rectum ; A - anus. 



36 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



A rea of allachment to dia- 
phragm {non-peritoneal) 
Bile-duct 



derives the common name, manjrplies. The omasum con- 
nects directly with the abomasum or true stomach, which, 
although much smaller than the rumen, is considerably 
larger than the reticulum. The omasum and abomasum are 
about the same size. (See Figure 8.) 

The small intestine is a long, folded, convoluted tube into 
which the stomach empties. The capacity of the small 

Saccus ccecus (left crlremili/) intestiuC of the 

different farm 
animals is ap- 
proximately as 
follows : cow, 17 
gallons ; horse, 
12 gallons ; 
sheep, 2i gal- 
lons; and hog, 
2 J gallons. In 
the cow, the 
small intestine 

(Sisson, Veterinary is about 130 feet 

long; in the 
horse, about 70 feet long ; in the sheep, about 80 feet long ; 
and in the hog, about 60 feet long. 

The large intestine joins the lower end of the small intes- 
tine. The upper end of the large intestine joining it to 
the lower end of the small intestine is called the ccecum. 
It is an elongated bag, the openings into and out of which are 
both found at the upper part close together. The rela- 
tion of the caecum to the small intestine is shown in 
Figure 5. The caecum of the horse is much enlarged. It 
is 3 to 4 feet in length and has a capacity of 7 to 8 




Fig. 4. — Stomach of the horse. 
Anatomy.) 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 37 

gallons. This provision enables the horse to handle con- 
siderable amounts of roughages. The large intestine is 
larger in diameter and is considerably shorter than the small 
intestine. It also contains many folds and convolutions, 
especially at its upper end. It ends in the anus. In the 
horse the upper end, just adjacent to the small intestine, is 
much enlarged to enable the animal to handle roughage. 
Owing to this provision, the 
large intestine of the horse 
has the greatest capacity of 
that of any of the farm ani- 
mals, — about 30 to 35 gal- 
lons. The large intestine of 
the cow has a capacity of 
about 8 to 10 gallons, and that 
of the sheep about l\ gallons. 
The large intestine of the hog ,^- " .^^ - „°' ^J^ 

is relatively large, as this is. Physiology.) l, The first colon of 
. . . , the large intestine ; 2, the ileum of 

the only provision it has lor the small intestine. 

handhng roughage. It has a 

capacity of about 2f gallons, or nearly twice that of the 
sheep. The length of the large intestine of the different 
farm animals is approximately as follows : horse, 25 feet ; 
cow, 36 feet ; sheep, 21 feet ; and hog, 15 feet. 

The accessory organs of digestion are the teeth, tongue, 
salivary glands, liver, and pancreas. (See Figure 3.) The 
teeth are used in the mastication or chewing of the feed, 
while the tongue assists in conveying it into the mouth and 
in swallowing it after mastication. The salivary glands 
are small glands located under the ears, under the lower jaw, 
and between the 'branches of the lower jaw. They produce 




38 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



the saliva and, by means of ducts, empty it into the mouth. 
The sahvary glands of the cow are shown in Figure 6. 

The hver, located just back of the stomach, is the largest 
gland in the body. It produces the bile which it stores in 
the gall bladder and, when needed, empties it into the upper 
part of the small intestine. It is of interest to note that 

the hver of the 
horse contains no 
gall bladder, the 
bile being stored 
in the ducts them- 
selves. 

The pancreas, 
commonly called 
the sweet-bread, 
is a small gland 
which hes along 
the upper part of 
the small intes- 
tine. It secretes 
the pancreatic 
juice into the 
small intestine. 
The relationship of the different parts of the digestive 
system, in case of the horse, is shown in Figure 7. 

Enzymes. — Digestion is accomphshed for the most part 
by means of substances known as enzymes, or ferments, 
which are formed by the salivary glands, by glands in the 
walls of the stomach, by the pancreas, and by glands in 
the walls of the small intestine. An enzyme may be defined 
as a substance secreted by cells, which has power, under 




Fig. 6. — Head of cow, showing some of the 
sahvary glands, a, h, c, d, e, f, g, h. (Sisson, 
Veterinary Anatomy.) 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 39 

certain conditions, of bringing about a chemical reaction 
without itself entering into the composition of the final 
products of the reaction. In other words, an enzyme is a 
substance which, when added to certain inactive substances, 
causes a chemical change to take place with the formation 



5 6 7 S 9 15 12 13 




Stitai/ inte.s;tne. 

Hfctiim 

Anu.t. 

f.rO kidney <uui 



Fig. 7. — Digestive tract of the horse. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

of new products. The enzyme itself remains unchanged, 
and may be recovered entirely at the end of the reaction and 
used over and over again to produce similar reactions. It 
acts as a catalytic agent. Thus a dilute solution of starch 
may be allowed to stand at room temperature for a con- 
siderable length of time and no changes will take place. 
However, if a few drops of saliva, which contains the enzyme 
salivary amylase or '' ptyahn," are added, all the starch 



40 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

disappears within a few minutes and a sugar is formed in 
its place. If more starch then is added, it also is changed to 
sugar and the process may be repeated a great many times 
without using up or destroying the enzyme which brings 
about the change. 

Enzymes are found in all plants and animals, and it is 
probable that not only digestion but many of the phenomena 
of life are brought about primarily by the presence of these 
substances. The ultimate purpose of the enzymes found 
in the digestive juices is to transform complex insoluble 
substances, as proteins, fats, and starch, into simple, soluble, 
transfusible substances which may be taken up by the 
blood. 

Digestion in the Mouth. — The first step in the digestion 
of feedingstuffs is to tear and break them apart, and to re- 
duce them to a fine condition. This is accomplished in 
the mouth by the process of mastication. The feeding- 
stuffs are not only broken up, but they are also thoroughly 
mixed with the saliva, which is formed in large quantities 
by the salivary glands. The horse may secrete as much as 
84 pounds, and the cow 112 pounds of saUva per day, the 
amount depending largely upon the dryness of the feeds. 
The main function of the saliva is to assist in mastication 
and swallowing, to stimulate the nerves of taste, and, in 
ruminants, to assist in rumination {i.e. chewing the cud). 
Saliva is slightly alkaline in reaction and, in most animals, 
contains the enzyme salivary amylase or ptyalin, which 
acts upon the starch of the feedingstuffs, finally changing 
it to maltose, or malt sugar, which is a much simpler carbohy- 
drate than starch. Also, it is soluble in water. Salivary 
amylase acts best in a shghtly alkaline or faintly acid solution 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 41 

and is destroyed by more than a trace of acid. It is present 
in only small amounts in the saliva of cattle and sheep, and 
probably lacking in dogs. 

In addition to saUvary amylase, the saliva contains a 
small amount of maltase, an enzyme which changes maltose 
to the simple sugar glucose. 

In ruminants mastication is usually quite incomplete at 
first but the food is later returned to the mouth for further 
mastication or rumination. At least seven out of every 
twenty-four hours are given to rumination. Inasmuch as 
an animal does not ruminate while working or sleeping, a hard- 
working ox may not have sufficient time in which to properly 
masticate his feed. 

In the horse, mastication is usually quite complete when 
the feed is swallowed. In the pig, mastication is quite in- 
complete. 

After the feed has been masticated, it is swallowed, passing 
by wa}^ of the esophagus or gullet into the stomach. 

Digestion in the Stomach. — During and immediately 
following the entrance of the masticated feed, the entire 
contents of the stomach are neutral or shghtly alkaline in 
reaction on account of the large quantity of saliva with 
which the feed is mixed. Thus salivary amylase and malt- 
ase may continue to act for some little time after the 
food reaches the stomach. 

The gastric juice, secreted by glands in the walls of the 
stomach, begins to flow as soon as the masticated feed enters 
the stomach. As the gastric juice contains 0.2 to 0.5 per 
cent of hydrochloric acid, the contents of the stomach soon 
become acid. The acid destroys any sahvary amylase 
which may have been acting upon the starch and the enzymes 



42 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

of the gastric juice, pepsin, rennin, and gastric lipase, begin 
to act. Pepsin, in acid solution, acts upon the proteins and 
breaks some of them up into soluble substances known as 
proteoses and peptones which, although they are still pro- 
teins, are much less complex arrangements of amino acids. 
Proteoses are formed in larger amounts than peptones by 
peptic digestion. Rennin curdles milk by the precipitation 
of the casein. This prevents it from passing on through the 
alimentary tract undigested. The casein then is acted upon 
by the pepsin. Commercially, rennin is used in the manu- 
facture of cheese. It is obtained from the stomachs of 
young calves. 

The gastric juice also contains gastric hpase, an enzyme 
which sphts up emulsified fats into glycerin and fatty 
acids. However, inasmuch as gastric lipase does not act 
upon unemulsified fats, its practical value in digestion is 
small. 

Soon after the feed reaches the stomach, the muscular 
walls of the stomach begin a series of contractions, and the 
more Uquid portion of the feed is squeezed out into the 
small intestine, while the more sohd portion is retained for 
further action by the gastric juice. 

Stomach digestion in the ruminants or cud-chewing an- 
imals differs from that in the horse and hog. When the 
feed is swallowed by a ruminant, the coarser particles enter 
the rumen, while the more hquid portion enters the reticulum, 
and passes through the omasum, into the abomasum or true 
stomach ; or the finely masticated food may enter the 
omasum directly from the esophagus. The coarser particles 
may be returned from the rumen to the mouth and rechewed 
at the will of the animal. While in the rumen the food is 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 43 

thoroughly mixed and the fibrous substances are mascerated 
and broken up by a slow churning movement. Also there 
is considerable digestion of the crude fiber, pentosans, and 
starch by means of bacteria which cause them to ferment, 
with the formation of lactic, acetic, and butyric acids, and 
carbon dioxide and methane gases. The acids may be 
utilized as food by the animal body, but the gases are useless 
and are excreted through the lungs and the digestive tract. 
However, the digestion of the cellulose sets free such nutrients 
as protein, starch, and fat which are inclosed in cells whose 
walls, as has been stated, are composed of cellulose. If the 
fermentation becomes too extensive and the gases are formed 
faster than they are removed from the body, as is often the 
case after large amounts of fresh grass are eaten, the animal 
'' bloats." 

The finer and more hquid part of the feed tends to accu- 
mulate in the reticulum, which regulates its passage into the 
abomasum. The reticulum also furnishes water to moisten 
the feed when it is regurgitated, and regulates its passage 
into the esophagus when it is returned to the mouth for 
rumination. 

The food may find its way into the omasum either directly 
from the esophagus after remastication or from the rumen or 
reticulum. The main function of the omasum is to com- 
press and break up any remaining coarse parts of the feed, 
which its does by crushing and rasping between its powerful, 
horny, muscular leaves. Its contents are always rather 
dry, as the Hquid portion of the feed is squeezed out imme- 
diately and forced on into the abomasum or true stomach. 
The abomasum secretes the gastric juice whose enzymes 
act practically the same as in 3ase of the horse and hog al- 



44 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



ready described. The course of the food through the stomach 
of a ruminant is shown in Figure 8. 

Digestion in the Small Intestine. — As a result of the di- 
gestion in the stomach, the food materials are reduced to an 

acid, semi-fluid, 
gray, pulpy 
mass, known as 
'^ chyme." In 
the upper part 
of the small 
intestine, the 
chyme is acted 
upon by three 
different diges- 
tive fluids, — the 




Fig. 8. — Stomach of a sheep, showing the course 
of the feed. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) A, pancreatic juice 
rumen ; B, reticulum ; C, omasum ; D, abomasum 
E, esophagus ; F, pylorus. 



the bile, and the 
intestinal juice, 
which render it alkaline in reaction, and stop any further 
action by the pepsin upon the proteins. 

The pancreatic juice is secreted by the pancreas (or sweet- 
breads), a gland which is located along the upper part of the 
small intestine. It contains the enzymes trypsin, erepsin, 
pancreatic amylase or amylopsin, pancreatic lipase or steapsin, 
and small amounts of maltase. Sucrase or invertin is some- 
times found, while lactase is present in young animals. 
They act best in alkahne solution. Trypsin acts upon the 
proteins which the pepsin has not broken up, and also upon 
some of the proteoses and peptones formed by the previous 
action of the pepsin. Trypsin, however, carries the de- 
composition of the proteins further than does pepsin. It 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 45 

not only produces proteoses and peptones, but in addition, 
it breaks up some of these compounds into peptids, which 
are still simpler combinations of only a few amino acids, 
and into the simple amino acids themselves. 

Erepsin completes the action upon the proteins by break- 
ing up the proteoses, peptones, and peptids into the amino 
acids. With the exceptions of casein, gelatin, fibrin, and 
a few other proteins, erepsin does not act upon the unchanged 
proteins, but only upon the products of their partial de- 
composition. 

Pancreatic amylase acts upon the starch of the feed. 
Its action is much more pronounced than that of salivary 
amylase because it ordinarily has a longer time to act upon 
the food and is present in greater abundance. Like sali- 
vary amylase, it changes starch to maltose. 

Lipase acts upon the fats of the feed, breaking them up 
into the fatty acids and glycerin of which they are com- 
posed. Most of the fatty acids then unite with the alkahne 
salts of the pancreatic juice and bile, producing soaps. (See 
page 20). The resulting soap solution, together with the 
bile, forms a fine emulsion with the remaining fats and 
enables the lipase to come in much closer contact with them 
and complete their digestion. 

Maltase acts upon maltose with the formation of glucose. 
Sucrase acts upon sucrose -svith the formation of glucose and 
fructose, while lactase acts upon lactose with the production 
of glucose and galactose. 

The bile is a yellowish-green, alkaline, very bitter liquid 
secreted by the liver and stored in the gall bladder, except 
in case of the horse as noted on page 38. It contains no 
enzymes, its chief digestive function being due to its solvent 



46 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

action. It acts as a solvent of the fats and fatty acids and 
thus assists in their digestion and absorption. Its presence 
also increases the activity of some of the enzymes of the 
small intestine, particularly of pancreatic lipase. 

The intestinal juice is secreted by small glands in the walls 
of the upper and middle part of the small intestine. It 
contains the enzymes, erepsin, sucrase, maltase, and lactase. 

Erepsin is much more abundant in the intestinal than in 
the pancreatic juice. It acts upon the proteoses and pep- 
tones produced by the previous action of pepsin and trypsin 
upon proteins. It breaks them up further into the amino 
acids. Its action is the same as that of the erepsin of the 
pancreatic juice. 

Sucrase acts upon sucrose or cane sugar, splitting it up 
into the simple sugars, glucose and fructose. Maltase acts 
upon the maltose formed by the action of salivary and pan- 
creatic amylases upon starch. It splits it up with the 
formation of glucose. Lactase acts upon lactose or milk 
sugar, splitting it up into the simple sugars, glucose and 
galactose, the latter being quite similar to glucose. 

In addition to the enzymes, the intestinal juice contains 
a substance called enter okinase, which has the property, 
when mixed with pancreatic juice, of enormously increasing 
the action of the latter on proteins. 

Digestion in the Large Intestine. — When the contents 
of the small intestine pass into the large intestine, they still 
contain a certain amount of undigested and unabsorbed 
material. This remains in the large intestine for a consider- 
able period of time during which the digestive processes 
started in the small intestine continue their action to a 
certain extent. In the large intestine of the hog and of the 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 47 

horse, considerable digestion of the crude fiber may occur from 
bacterial actions similar to those already described as taking 
place in the rumen of cattle and sheep. Also, there is consid- 
erable bacterial action upon the undigested proteins, causing 
their putrefaction, with the formation of proteoses, peptones, 
amino acids, and numerous other products, as indol, skatol, 
amines, ptomaines, and hydrogen sulphide, which give to the 
feces their offensive odor, and which, in some cases, are 
toxic or poisonous to the animal organism if absorbed in 
large quantities. After remaining in the large intestine 
for some time, the undigested and unabsorbed feed residues, 
together with remains of the digestive juices, living and dead 
bacteria, and dead cells from the walls of the digestive tract 
are passed on into the lower part of the large intestine, or 
rectum, and excreted from the body through the anus as 
feces. 

Absorption. — Absorption is the process by which the 
final products of the digestion of the feed are taken into the 
blood and lymph for final distribution to the tissues of the 
body. The greater part of the digested food material is 
absorbed from the small intestine, while smaller amounts 
are absorbed from the large intestine. The wall of the 
small intestine is lined with numerous, conical, round, or 
club-shaped projections known as villi, which extend out 
into the contents of the small intestine. Figure 9 shows 
a cross-section of the mucous membrane of the small intes- 
tine much enlarged. The partially digested food entering 
from the stomach is poured back and forth in the upper end 
of the small intestine in order to expose it sufficiently to 
the absorbing action of the villi. It is said that the contents 
of the small intestine of the horse are passed to and fro twenty 



48 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



times before passing on to the large intestine. Each villus 
(singular of viUi) contains a lacteal of the lymphatic system, 
surrounded by a net work of fine blood capillaries. Figure 
10 shows the structure of a villus much enlarged. The 




MUSCUUkR 
^ > COAT 



Fig. 9. — Cross section of mucous membrane of small intestine, showing 
capillaries and lacteals. (Jordan, Principles of Human Nutrition.) 

products of the digestion of the proteins, i.e. amino acids, 
and of the starches and sugars, i.e. glucose and other simple 
sugars, pass into the capillaries, through the portal vein 
to the Hver, and into the general circulation of the blood. 
The products of the digestion of crude fiber, i.e. salts of 
acetic and butyric acids, also are probably absorbed into the 
capillaries. In passing through the walls of the villi, the 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 



49 



soaps and glycerin formed in the digestion of the fats are 
recombined, forming fats again, and liberating the alkali of 
the soaps. The fats enter the lacteals instead of the 
capillaries and are carried into the lymphatic system, passing 
into the general circulation of the blood 
through the thoracic duct, which is 
located in the neck. Figure 11 shows 
the distended lacteals during absorption 
in case of the horse. The mineral matter 
of the feed is probably absorbed from 
the small intestine without any pre- 
vious digestion, other than simple solu- 
tion in the digestive juices. 

During thp comparatively long time 
that the feed residues remain in the 
large intestine there is a marked ab- 
sorption of water. There is also an 
absorption of some of the products of 
digestion by the enzymes carried in 
from the small intestine and of some of 




Fig. 10. — Longitu 
dinal section of £ 

the products of bacterial fermentation villus, showing: a 
This takes 



and putrefaction. 



1 epithelium ; h, capil- 

piace laries; c, lacteal. 



through the capillaries in the walls of (Jordan, Principles of 

Human Nutrition.) 

the large mtestme. 

Concerning digestion, Mathews ^ makes the following 
statemeiit : '' In short, the main object of the whole process 
of digestion appears to be to resolve the various food sub- 
stances into those common building stones, amino acids, 
monosaccharides {i.e. simple sugars, as glucose) and fatty 
acids, which are the common basis of all proteins, carbohy- 

1 "Physiological Chemistry," p. 446. 



50 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



drates, and fats. Thus each organism can use these building 
stones in the proportion and order it needs to construct its 
own proteins and organized matter, which in each organism 




Fig. 11. — Loop of small intestine of the horse during active absorption 
showing distended lacteals. (Smith, Manual of Veterinary Physiology.) 

has an architecture as distinct and characteristic as the 
form of the organism itself." 



SUMMARY OF THE DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF THE 
NUTRIENTS 

Inasmuch as the processes of digestion and absorption 
are so complex, it may assist the student to summarize the 
digestion and absorption of each incUvidual class of nutrients. 

Water. — Water, of course, needs no digestion. It is ab- 
sorbed to a slight extent by the capillaries of the stomach 
and to a large extent by the capillaries of the vilH of the 
small intestine, and by the capillaries of the walls of the 
large intestine. 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 51 

Mineral Matter. — Mineral matter probably undergoes 
no digestion other than simple solution. It probably is ab- 
sorbed principally from the small intestine. 

Protein. — There is no action upon proteins in the mouth 
except mastication. They are first acted upon in the stomach 
by the pepsin of the gastric juice which, in acid solution, 
breaks up some of the complex proteins into the simpler 
and soluble proteoses and peptones. Rennin, in the gastric 
juice, coagulates the casein of milk, which is then acted upon 
by the pepsin. 

Passing from the stomach into the upper end of the small 
intestine, the unchanged proteins, the proteoses, and the 
peptones encounter the more active enzyme, trypsin, of 
the pancreatic juice, and the enzyme, erepsin, of the pan- 
creatic and of the intestinal juices. Trypsin, in alkahne 
solution, in the presence of the enterokinase of the intestinal 
juice, attacks the remaining proteins, breaking them down 
into proteoses, peptones, peptides, and the amino acids. 
It also attacks some of the proteoses and peptones previously 
formed by the peptic digestion, breaking them down still 
further into peptids and amino acids. The proteoses, pep- 
tones, and peptids are acted upon by the erepsin which, in 
alkaline solution, breaks them down further into the amino 
acids. Erepsin does not act upon unchanged protein, how- 
ever, except in the cases of casein, fibrin, gelatin, and a few 
others. "^The amino acids, as they are formed, are absorbed by 
the villi of the small intestine into the capillaries and pass via 
the portal vein through the liver into the general circulation. 
Concerning the digestion and absorption of proteins. Un- 
derbill ^ makes the following statement :''... demolition 

1 " The Physiology of the Amino Acids," p. 34. 



52 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

of the protein molecule is not of the nature of an explosion 
resulting in a large number of fragments scattered about, 
but instead it may be looked upon as a kind of slow erosion 
whereby certain projecting pieces are rubbed or broken off. 
. . . absorption takes place rapidly and the erosion prod- 
ucts have a tendency to disappear from the ahmentary 
canal." 

Any proteins which have escaped digestion and absorp- 
tion thus far are then passed on into the large intestine, where 
the action of the trypsin and erepsin may continue for some 
time. Here the proteins are attacked also by bacteria, 
and putrefaction takes place with the formation of the same 
products as formed in tryptic digestion, proteoses, peptones, 
peptids, and finally amino acids. The amino acids are at- 
tacked by bacteria, with the formation of such products 
as indol, skatol, amines, ptomaines, and hydrogen-sulphide, 
which, if absorbed in large quantities, may act as toxins to 
the animal organism. A part of the products of digestion 
in the large intestine is absorbed through the capillaries of 
the intestinal walls and passes via the portal vein through 
the hver into the general circulation. Any undigested or 
unabsorbed residues are excreted in the feces. 

Nitrogen-free Extract. — Nitrogen-free extract consists of 
all the carbohydrates in the feedingstuff except those in- 
cluded under crude fiber. The principal constituent of the 
nitrogen-free extract of most feedingstuffs is starch. Of less 
importance is sucrose or cane sugar. Lactose or milk sugar 
is the principal constituent of the nitrogen-free extract of 
milk. 

The first digestion of starch occurs in the mouth, where 
the salivary amylase, if present, acts upon some of the starch 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 63 

with the production of maltose. The saliva contains also a 
small amount of maltase, which may change some of the 
maltose to glucose. These actions may continue after the 
masticated feed has reached the stomach, until it is rendered 
acid by the flow of the gastric juice. In case of ruminants, 
some digestion may take place in the rumen by fermenta- 
tions, with the production of acetic and butyric acids, and 
carbon dioxide and methane gases. However, the principal 
digestion of starch takes place in the small intestine. Here 
the enzyme, pancreatic amylase of the pancreatic juice, 
acts upon starch, converting it to maltose. The enzyme, 
maltase, of the intestinal and of the pancreatic juices then 
acts upon the maltose, converting it to the simple sugar 
glucose. 

Sucrase, another enzyme found in the intestinal and 
pancreatic juices, acts upon any sucrose or cane sugar, 
sphtting it up into the simple sugars, glucose and fructose. 

Lactase, the third sugar-spUtting enzyme of the intestinal 
and pancreatic juices, acts upon lactose or milk sugar with 
the formation of the simple sugars glucose and galactose. 

The starches and sugars are absorbed in the form of the 
simple sugars, glucose, fructose, and galactose, glucose 
being predominant. These sugars are absorbed by the villi 
of the small intestine and pass into the capillaries, through 
the liver, and into the general circulation of the blood. 

Some digestion, both by enzyme action and by bacterial 
fermentation, may take place in the large intestine, the 
products of which are absorbed there by the capillaries. 

Crude Fiber. — Crude fiber probably is digested only 
by the action of bacteria, as no special enzyme for the diges- 
tion of crude fiber or cellulose has been found. In ruminants, 



54 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

the principal digestion of crude fiber occurs in the rumen or 
paunch, due to bacterial fermentation. This fermentation 
produces acetic and butyric acids, which may serve as 
nutrients to the animal body, and large quantities of carbon 
dioxide and methane gases, which in part are absorbed by 
the blood and excreted through the lungs, and in part are 
excreted directly by way of the alimentary tract. 

Further fermentation of the crude fiber takes place in 
the large intestine, especially of the hog and of the horse, 
practically the same products being formed as in the paunch 
fermentation of the ruminants. 

The acids thus formed unite with alkalies present to form 
salts, in which form they probably are absorbed into the 
capillaries of the small and large intestines. The undigested 
portions of the crude fiber pass from the body in the feces. 

Fats. — Emulsified fats are acted upon in the stomach by 
the gastric hpase, which sphts them up into glycerin and 
fatty acids. However, the unemulsifiecl fats undergo little 
or no digestion until they reach the small intestine, where 
they are acted upon by the enzyme, hpase, of the pancreatic 
juice. This enzyme, in alkahne solution, sphts up the fats 
into glycerin and fatty acids. The latter unite with the 
alkahes of the pancreatic juice and bile to form soaps. 
The solution of the soaps thus formed causes an emulsion 
to be formed with the remaining fats, enabling the lipase to 
come in closer contact with them. The bile aids in the 
digestion and absorption of fats by assisting in the solution 
of the fats, fatty acids, and soaps. The presence of bile 
also increases the activity of the pancreatic hpase. 

The soaps, fatty acids, and glycerin are absorbed through 
the walls of the vilh of the small intestine. In passing 



THE DIGESTION OF THE NUTRIENTS 55 

through the walls the soaps are split up into the alkali and 
the fatty acids of which they are formed and the fatty acids 
reunite ^vith the glycerin to form fat again. The fats pass 
into the lacteals and are carried into the lymphatic cir- 
culation and then through the thoracic duct into the 
blood. 



CHAPTER IV 
THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 

From a nutritive standpoint, only those portions of the 
nutrients which are digested and absorbed are of value to 
the animal body. In a sense, food is not within the body 
until it enters the blood. The undigested portion of the 
ration, although it may be of value in distending the digestive 
tract and for other purposes, has no value as a means of 
support to the animal. Hence a knowledge of the amounts 
of the nutrients digested, and of the factors affecting the 
digestibility of the nutrients of the various feedingstuffs, is 
of considerable practical importance. 

Coefficients of Digestibility. — The process of digestion 
in the farm animals usually is quite incomplete, the un- 
digested portions of the ration being excreted in the feces. 
Thus the amount of a nutrient digested is equal to the 
amount of that nutrient consumed, less the amount of it 
excreted in the feces. The percentage of the nutrient that 
is digested is known as the " coefficient of digestibility." 
The coefficient of digestibiUty is obtained by dividing the 
amount of the nutrient digested by the total amount of the 
nutrient consumed, and multiplying the result by 100. 

Determination of Coefficients of Digestibility. — The 
coefficients of digestibility of the different nutrients of many 
feeds have been determined by what are known as digestion 

56 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 



57 



experiments. In a digestion experiment, the feedingstuff is 
first analyzed to determine the percentage of each nutrient 
present. The animal then is fed weighed quantities of the 
feedingstuff under experimentation for a period of one or two 
weeks, called the prehminary period, during which time the 
residues of previous feeding are excreted from the body. 




Fk 



Digestion harness on a pig. (Illinois Experiment Station.) 



The prehminary period is followed by a test period of one 
to three weeks in length. During the test period, the ration 
is weighed carefully, deducting the weight of any uneaten 
residue. The feces of the animal are collected usually in a 
rubber bag which fastens on to the hindquarters of the animal 
by a light harness. Figure 12 shows a digestion harness on 
a pig. Sometimes, especially in the cases of cattle and horses, 
they are collected with a shovel by attendants who watch the 



58 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

animal day and night. Other times, especially in case 
of hogs, the animal is put into a stall or cage which has a 
floor made of coarse wire screening through which the feces 
drop on to a cloth stretched below. After collection, the feces 
are weighed and analyzed. Knowing the total amount of 
each nutrient which the animal consumes in a given time, and 
the amount of each nutrient which it excretes in the feces 
during the same time, it is an easy matter to calculate the 
amount of each nutrient digested, and the coefficient of 
digestibility of each nutrient of that particular feed. For 
example, during a seven-day digestion period, a hog consumed 
49 pounds of corn which had the following chemical composi- 
tion : dry substance, 86.38 per cent ; crude protein, 9.80 
per cent ; nitrogen-free extract, 70.03 per cent ; crude fiber, 
1.91 per cent; and fat, 3.47 per cent. During this period, 
the animal excreted 12.6 pounds of feces, which had the 
following chemical composition : dry substance, 36.48 per 
cent ; crude protein, 6.83 per cent ; lutrogen-free extract, 
16.72 per cent; crude fiber, 4.93 per cent; and fat, 4.65 
per cent. 

In order to find the coefficients of digestibihty of the 
nutrients of the corn in this experiment, one first obtains the 
total amount of each nutrient consumed by the hog, by 
multiplying the amount of corn consumed, — 49.0 pounds, 
by the per cent of each nutrient in the corn, and then 
dividing the result by 100. Thus the total dry substance 
consumed was 49.0 times 86.38 divided by 100, or 42.33 
pounds. The amounts of crude protein, nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, crude fiber and fat consumed are obtained in similar 
manner. 

The next step consists in determining the amount of each 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 



59 



nutrient excreted in tlie feces, by multiplying the weight of 
the feces by the per cent of each nutrient present in them, 
and then dividing the result by 100. Thus the amount of 
dry substance excreted in the feces was 12.6 times 36.48 
divided by 100, or 4.6 pounds. The total amount of each 
nutrient consumed, less the amount of that nutrient ex- 
creted in the feces, gives the amount of each nutrient digested. 
Thus in the example the hog digested 42.33 minus 4.60 or 
37.73 pounds of dry substance. The amount of each nu- 
trient digested, divided by the total amount of the cor- 
responcUng nutrient consumed, and the result multipUed 
by 100, gives the coefficient of digestibility of each nutrient. 
Thus the coefficient of digestibihty of the dry substance in 
the above experiment was 37.73 times 100 divided by 42.33, 
or 89.13 per cent. 

In the preceding example, the coefficients of chgestibiUty 
are calculated as follows : 





Dry 

Sub- 
stance 


Crude 
Protein 


N.-free 
Extract 


Crude 
Fiber 


Fat 


49.0 lb. corn 

12.6 lb. feces 

Nutrients digested . . . 

Coefficient of digestibility, 

per cent 


Lh. 

42.33 

4.60 

37.73 

89.13 


Lb. 
. 4.80 

0.86 
3.94 

82.08 


Lh. 

34.31 

2.11 

32.20 

93.85 


Lh. 

0.94 
0.62 
0.32 

34.04 


Lh. 

1.70 
0.59 
1.11 

65.29 



It should be noted, however, that coefficients of diges- 
tibihty are not exact because, as has already been shown on 
page 47, the feces consist of dead and hving bacteria, dead 
cells from the digestive tract, and the residues of the digestive 
juices, as well as undigested food residues. However, such 



60 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

coefficients of digestibility are approximately correct, and 
they must be used until methods of separating the food 
residues from the other constituents of the feces are worked 
out. 

There are many feeds which cannot be fed alone to cer- 
tain classes of animals. For example, such feeds as corn 
and oats cannot be fed to cattle, sheep, and horses unless in 
combination with some roughage, as hay or straw, while 
such feeds as tankage and oil meal cannot be fed alone to 
hogs. Thus it is impossible to determine directly the coef- 
ficients of digestibility of many of the concentrates. In 
determining the digestibiUty of such a feedingstuff, it is 
fed with a feed whose coefficients of digestibiUty have been 
determined previously. The total consumption of each 
nutrient {i.e., from the entire ration) and the total amount 
of each nutrient excreted in the feces is determined in the 
usual manner. The amount of each nutrient digested then 
is obtained by subtracting the amount of each nutrient 
excreted from the total amount of the corresponding nu- 
trient consumed. The amount of digestible nutrients con- 
sumed from the feedingstuff whose digestibility is known is 
calculated by multiplying the amount of each nutrient con- 
sumed from that feedingstuff by its previously determined 
coefficient of digestibility, and dividing the result by 100. 
Subtracting these results from the total amount of each 
respective nutrient digested, the amount of each nutrient 
digested from the other feed is obtained. The coefficient 
of digestibility then is calculated as before. 

For example, in a digestion period of seven days a hog 
was fed a ration consisting of ground corn and tankage, the 
coefficients of digestibiUty of the corn. being determined in 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 



61 



a previous experiment. The chemical composition of the 
feeds used and the feces excreted was as follows : 





Dry Sub- 
stance 


Crude 
Protein 


N.-PREE 

Extract 


Crude 
Fiber 


Fat 


Corn 

Tankage .... 
Feces 


Per cent 

86.38 
94.56 
42.22 


Per cent 
9.80 

60.91 
14.63 


Per cent 

70.03 

4.30 

14.91 


Per cent 

1.91 
3.95 
5.17 


Per cent 

3.47 

13.69 

1.77 



During the digestion period, the hog consumed 28 pounds 
of corn and 7 pounds of tankage and excreted 10.3 pounds of 
feces. Having these data, one calculates the amount of 
each nutrient digested as outhned on page 59. 





Dry Sub- 


Crude 


N.-free 


Crude 


Fat 




stance 


Protein 


Extract 


Fiber 




Lh. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


28 lb. corn . . . 


24.19 


2.74 


19.61 


0.53 


0.97 


7 lb. tankage . . 


6.62 


4.26 


0.30 


0.28 


0.96 


Total ration . . 


30.81 


7.00 


19.91 


0.81 


1.93 


10.3 lb. feces . . 


4.35 


1.51 


1.54 


0.53 


0.18 


Nutrients digested 


26.46 


5.49 


18.37 


0.28 


1.75 



Having determined the amount of each nutrient digested 
from the entire ration, the next step is to determine the 
amount sof each nutrient digested from the corn. From a 
previous test period the coefficients of digestibility of corn 
were found to be as follows: dry substance, 88.2 per cent; 
crude protein, 78.8 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 93.4 
per cent ; crude fiber, 30.0 per cent ; and fat, 67.0 per cent. 
Thus, knowing the amount of each nutrient of the corn 



62 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



consumed, and the percentage of it which is digestible, one 
obtains tlie amount of each digestible nutrient in the corn 
by multiplying the total amount of each nutrient of the corn 
by its coefficient of digestibihty and dividing the result by 
100. Obviously, subtracting the amount of digestible nu- 
trients of the corn from the digestible nutrients of the total 
ration leaves the amount of nutrients digested from the 
tankage. Then dividing the amount of each nutrient di- 
gested from the tankage by the amount of the correspond- 
ing nutrient consumed from the tankage, and multiplying 
the result by 100 gives the coefficients of digestibihty of the 
nutrients of the tankage. 

Returning to the example cited, the coefficients of diges- 
tibihty of tankage are calculated as follows : 



Digested from total ra- 
tion 

Digested from corn . 

Digested from tankage . 

Coefficient of digesti- 
bility of tankage (per- 
cent) 



Dry Sub- 
stance 


Crude 
Protein 


N.-FREE 

Extract 


Crude 
Fiber 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


26.46 

21.34 

5.12 


5.49 
2.16 
3.33 


18.37 

18.32 

0.05 


0.28 
0.16 
0.12 


77.34 


78.17 


16.67 


42.86 



Fat 



Lb. 

1.75 
0.65 
1.10 



114.59 



This indirect method of calculating the coefficients of 
digestibility is open to criticism because all of the difference 
between the values for the single feed and the corresponding 
values for the combined feeds is credited to the single feed, 
whereas it is probable that in the combined feeds each feed 
exerts an influence upon the digestibihty of the other. Also 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 



63 



all the errors of the determination are thrown upon one feed. 
Consequently absurd results are often obtained, as in the 
case of the coefficient of digestibihty of fat in the previous 
example. Thus at the IlUnois Station/ Grindley, Carmi- 
chael, and NewUn fed four pigs a ration of middings alone ; 
later a ration of corn and middhngs in equal parts ; and then 
a ration of corn alone. The coefficients of digestibility of 
corn and middlings as actually determined were materially 
different from the coefficients calculated indirectly by the 
method just described. Thus the average coefficients of 
middlings when determined directly and when determined 
indirectly when fed with corn, were as follows : 





Dry 

Substance 


Crude 
Protein 


N.-pree 
Extract 


Crude 
Fiber 


Fat 


Alone 

With corn . . . 


Per cent 

74.3 
70.2 


Per cent 

79.9 

77.5 


Per cent 

81.3 

77.2 


Per cent 

22.7 
0.2 


Per cent 

84.7 
89.3 



This shows that the indirect method is not exact by any 
means. However, this is the only method of determining 
the coefficients of digestibility for each feed when more than 
one feed is used and, until a better one is formulated, it 
muvst be used. 

Knowing the coefficients of digestibility of two feeds, a 
third m^y be added to the ration, and its digestibility cal- 
culated in a similar manner. 

Digestibility of Mineral Matter. — Owing to the many 
errors involved in the determination, and the great variability 
of the results obtained, the coefficients of digestibility of min- 

1 Unpublished data. 



64 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



eral m^ter are of little practical value, and hence they are not 
given often. 

Digestibility of Crude Protein. — Protein from the con- 
centrates is digested more thoroughly, as a rule, than pro- 
tein from the roughages. This is probably due to the fact 
that the protein of the roughages is surrounded by tougher, 
more fibrous cell walls than the protein of the concentrates. 
Protein of the nitrogenous concentrates {i.e. concentrates 
containing a large amount of protein) such as the oil meals, 
legume seeds, distillers' grains, and gluten feed have the 
highest coefficients of digestibihty, usually between 75 and 
90 per cent. Proteins of the non-nitrogenous concentrates, 
as corn, oats, and wheat, are usually from 60 to 80 per cent 
digestible. Proteins of the concentrates which are relatively 
high in crude fiber, as corn-and-cob meal and the brans, 
have the lowest coefficients of digestibility among the con- 
centrates, running sometimes as low as 50 per cent. 

Of the roughages, the proteins of the leguminous hays, as 
alfalfa, clover, and cowpeas, have the highest coefficients 
of digestibihty, — 60 to 75 per cent, being as high or higher 
than some of the concentrates. The proteins of the straws 
have the lowest coefficients of digestibihty, — 23 to 33 per 
cent. 

In general, the digestibihty of crude protein seems to 
increase with the amount of protein in the feed and to 
decrease with the amount of crude fiber. 

Digestibility of Nitrogen-free Extract. — Generally speak- 
ing, nitrogen-free extract is the most digestible nutrient, due 
to the fact that the starches and sugars are quite easily 
and quite thoroughly digested. As a rule, the nitrogen-free 
extract of the concentrates is more digestible than that of 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 65 

the roughages. The digestibihty of the nitrogen-free ex- 
tract of the cereals a,nd their by-products is especially high, 
— usually from 80 to 93 per cent, due to the large amount of 
starch which they contain. 

The nitrogen-free extract of the roughages is less digestible, 
owing to the smaller amount of starch and larger quantity 
of less digestible carbohydrates, such as pentosans, which it 
contains. The coefficients of digestibihty of the nitrogen- 
free extract of the roughages are usually from 40 to 70 per 
cent. 

In general, the digestibihty of nitrogen-free extract in- 
creases with the amount of starch which it contains, and 
decreases with the amount of crude fiber in the feed. 

Digestibility of Crude Fiber. — The determination of the 
digestibility of crude fiber, owing to errors in the method of 
analysis, is only approximate at best. In many digestion 
experiments the digestibihty of the nitrogen-free extract 
and crude fiber are not determined separately but are deter- 
mined together as " carbohydrates." 

Unhke the other nutrients, the crude fiber of the roughages 
is usually more digestible than the crude fiber of the con- 
centrates. Thus the coefficients of digestibility of the con- 
centrates are usually between 30 and 60 per cent, while 
those of the roughages are between 45 and 65 per cent. The 
crude fiber of corn fodder and the hays is usually more 
digestible than the crude fiber from the straws. This is 
due probably to the latter containing a larger amount of 
coarse, woody material. Also, the crude fiber of early cut 
hay is more digestible than that of late cut hay. Thus the 
crude fiber of timothy hay cut when in bloom had a coefficient 
of digestibihty of 57 per cent while timothy hay cut after 



66 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

the bloom had a coefficient of 43 per cent. In general, the 
older and tougher the plant the less digestible is the crude 
fiber. 

Digestibility of Fat. — Owing to the inaccurate methods 
of analysis, the determinations of the digestibility of fat 
usually are less exact than those of any of the other nutrients 
excepting mineral matter. 

The digestibility of the fat of the concentrates is greater 
than that of the roughages. Of the concentrates, the fats 
from packinghouse by-products, oil by-products, cereal by- 
products, and oil-bearing seeds have the highest coefficients 
of digestibihty, in most cases being from 80 to 98 per cent. 
The fats of the other concentrates are usually from 65 to 90 
per cent digestible. 

In the roughages, the fats of corn fodder and stover have 
the highest coefficients of digestibihty, — 67 to 74 per cent. 
The straws are lowest, — 30 to 39 per cent. 

In general, the digestibihty of fat increases with the 
amount of fat in the feed, and decreases with the amount 
of crude fiber. 

FACTORS AFFECTING DIGESTIBILITY 

There are certain factors which may affect the digestibility 
of feedingstuffs, either favorably or unfavorably. Also, 
there are certain factors which sometimes are said to affect 
the digestibihty which, as a matter of fact, have no influence 
whatever. Obviously a knowledge of these factors and their 
influence, if any, upon the digestibihty is of considerable 
practical importance. 

Species of Animal. — The species of animal may have 
considerable influence upon the digestibihty of a feeding- 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 67 

stuff. As a rule, . cattle digest the straws and coarse hays 
better than sheep, but with hays of good quahty there is 
no difference. Cattle and sheep digest roughages more 
completely than does the horse, while the latter digests 
them much more thoroughly than the hog. The reason 
for this hes in the special provisions in the digestive tracts 
of ruminants and horses for the handhng of roughage. 
On the other hand, the four classes of farm animals digest 
concentrates equally well. 

Breed of Animal. — Different breeds of the same species 
of animal possess an equal digestive power. Thus Armsby 
and Fries ^ found that a pure-bred Angus steer and a scrub 
steer of predominant dairy type digested the same ration 
equally well. 

Age of Animal. — Within reasonable limits the age of the 
animal does not influence the digestibihty of the ration. Very 
young animals without teeth and very old animals with 
defective teeth of course would not be able to digest certain 
rations very thoroughly. Also until the rumen or paunch 
of the young ruminants is fully developed, the coarser part 
of the ration will not be digested thoroughly. Armsby and 
Fries ^ in experiments with two steers found but Httle 
difference in their digestibihty as yearlings, as two-year-olds, 
and as three-year-olds. 

The condition of the animal has no effect upon its power 
of digestion. In the experiment by Armsby and Fries, 
already quoted, it was found that a steer in good condition 
and one in poor condition digested the same ration equally 
well. 

Work by the Animal. — It often has been assumed that a 

I U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bureau of Amin. Indus. Bui. 128. 2 (^lUd.) 



68 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

keen appetite, resulting from hard work, enables an animal 
to make greater use of the feed provided. Within reason- 
able Umits, however, work has no effect upon the digestibiUty. 
However, it has been found that very hard work decreases 
the digestibility. Also it was found that horses working at 
a quick trot did not digest their rations as well as when work- 
ing at a walk or when resting. 

The individuality of the animal may have considerable 
effect upon the digestibility of the ration. In other words, 
animals kept under the same conditions and fed the same 
ration may have different powers of digestibility. Thus 
at the Illinois Experiment Station,^ Grindley, Carmichael 
and Newlin conducted forty digestion experiments, each of 
ten days' duration, on four pigs. All conditions of the 
experiments were practically the same. The pigs were 
litter mates and had been fed together from JJ^irth. It was 
foun3 that some of the coefficients of digestibility of certain 
pigs were uniformly higher than those of other pigs on the 
same ration. This difference sometimes amounted to as 
much as five per cent. 

Palatability of the Ration. — Increased palatability of the 
ration probably has a sUght beneficial effect upon the digest- 
ibiUty. The secretion of the digestive juices is partly under 
the control of the nervous system ; thus, Pawlow, a great 
Russian physiologist, found that the smell or taste of food 
stimulates the nervous system and causes a flow of the diges- 
tive juices, which would tend to increase the thoroughness of 
digestion. The experienced feeder knows well the value of 
stimulating the appetites of his animals by means of attrac- 
tive mixtures. Too much stress should not be placed upon 

1 Unpublished data. 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 69 

the effect of palatability, however, as the increase in digest- 
ibiUty is probably small at best. 

Cooking of Feeds. — Formerly, much labor and money 
was expended by farmers in steaming and cooking feeds. 
It has been found, however, that these processes do not 
increase the digestibihty, but, on the contrary, they usually 
decrease it. Cooking decreases the digestibility of the pro- 
tein especially. Potatoes and other starchy tubers are an 
exception to the rule, as their digestibihty is increased by 
cooking. At the Oregon Experiment Station,^ Withycombe 
and Bradley found that the steaming of vetch and of 
com silage decreased considerably the digestibihty of the 
ration. 

Sweating ajid fermenting of feeds usually (|ecrease the 
digestibihty. ^'On the other hand, the palatabihty of some 
feeds may be increased by such treatment and thereby make 
possible the consumption of material which otherwise 
would not be eaten at all. Thus while corn silage is not as 
thoroughly digested as corn fodder, it is more valuable as a 
feed because of its palatable and succulent nature. Brown 
hay shows an increased digestibility of crude fiber but de- 
creased digestibihty of protein and nitrogen-free extract. 

Soaking of Feeds. — In the case of very hard, flinty corn, 
soaking for several hours previous to feeding may increase 
its digestibihty, especially if the animals to which it is fed 
are old and have defective teeth. 

Grinding of Feeds. — Grinding of the feed probably in- 
creases the digestibihty to a certain extent. Jordan ^ states 
that in experiments with horses, grinding increased the 
digestibility of com and oats 3 to 14 per cent, of corn alone 

1 Bui. 102.. 2 " The Feeding of Animals," p. 133. 



70 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

7 per cent, and of wheat 10 per cent. In a test with sheep 
unground oats were digested as completely as ground oats. 
On the other hand, Evvard,^ at the Iowa Station, found that 
60-pound pigs digested ear corn, shelled corn, and" ground 
corn equally well. In case of 200-pound hogs there was a 
very shght cUfference in favor of grinding or grinding and 
soaking. In general, however, it is not advisable from an 
economic standpoint to grind corn and oats if the cost of 
grinding amounts to more than ten per cent of the value of 
the feed. In the case of fattening cattle which are followed 
by hogs, it is doubtful if it is ever profitable to grind the corn. 
Grain never should be ground for sheep except in the case of 
young lambs. In the case of animals with defective teeth, 
very young animals, horses at hard work, and dairy cows, 
it may be advantageous to grind the feed, providing the cost 
of grinding is not too great. Wheat, barley, rye, and emmer 
should be ground, crushed, or rolled for all animals except 
sheep. 

Frequency of Feeding and Watering. — Within reason- 
able hmits, the frequency of feeding has no effect upon 
digestibility. The same is true of the frequency of watering. 

Patent Stock Foods. — The advertisements of most 
patent or proprietary stock foods '' guarantee " that their 
use will cause the animal to cUgest considerably more of its 
ration and derive much more benefit therefrom. Inasmuch 
as patent stock foods usually consist of a mixture of common 
feedingstufTs, as bran, oil meal, ground oat hulls, and ground 
chafT, with a small quantity of salt and drugs, it is difficult 
to see how this can be so. 

Michael and Kennedy, at the Iowa Experiment Station,^ 

1 Unpublished data. 2 BuL 113. 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 71 

found that patent stock foods when fed with com to hogs did 
not increase the digestibiUty of the ration. The hogs did 
not derive more benefit from their ration but, on the 
contrary, they required more feed to produce a pound 
of gain when stock foods were used than when corn was 
fed alone. 

Snyder and Hummel, at the Minnesota Experiment 
Station,^ in feeding a ration of corn and alfalfa hay to steers, 
found that the addition of a patent stock food materially 
decreased the digestibility of the dry matter, crude protein, 
crude fiber, and fat of the ration. 

Patent stock foods, in some cases, may have a medicinal 
value but, if an animal needs mecUcine, usually it will be 
found to be better policy to call in a trained veterinarian. 

Salt, although valuable and even necessary to the animal, 
does not increase the digestibihty of the feed. In fact, 
large quantities of salt may decrease the cHgestibihty by 
hindering the action of the digestive enzymes. 

Stage of Growth of the Plant. — In general, as plants 
mature the relative proportion of crude fiber in the stems and 
leaves increases and the plant tissues become harder and 
tougher, and, consequently, the stems and leaves become 
less digestible. On the other hand, the proportion of 
nitrogen-free extract, i.e. the starches and sugars in the 
grain or seeds, increases, and hence the total amount of 
nutrimenl in the grain and seeds increases with approaching 
maturity. Thus, in order to get the greatest amount of 
nutrients, such plants as clover and timothy, which are 
grown primarily for the stems and leaves, should be harvested 
before the ripening of their seeds ; while such plants as corn, 

• 1 Bui. 80. 



72 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

oats, and wheat, which are grown primarily for their seeds, 
should be allowed to mature before harvesting. 

Curing and Storage of Feeds. — The curing of feeds, if 
properly done, has no effect upon their digestibility. If 
improperly done, it may decrease the digestibility. Thus, 
exposure to rains leaches out a large part of the soluble and 
more digestible matter of the feed. Also, the digestibility 
of hay may be decreased by the loss of the leaves, which 
are the most digestible part of the roughages. Heating 
of hay in the mow or stack materially decreases the 
digestibility, as the more digestible portions of the plant 
are most subject to fermentation. The digestibility of 
hay may be decreased sHghtly by storage from one year 
to the next. 

Amounts of Feed. — In recent investigations with cattle 
at the Ilhnois Experiment Station, ^ by Mumford, Grindley, 
Hall, Emmett, Joseph, and Allison, it was found that when a 
large proportion of concentrates to roughage was fed (5 
parts of the former to 1 part of the latter), the amount of 
feed consumed had little or no influence upon the digestibility 
of the ration. However, when the proportion of concentrates 
in the ration was smaller (3 parts of concentrates to 1 part 
of roughage, and 1 part of concentrates to 1 part of roughage), 
the digestibility of the ration varied inversely with the amount 
of feed consumed. Maintenance rations were digested most 
thoroughly, with one-third feed, two-thirds feed, and full- 
feed rations ranking in the order named. Thus the coef- 
ficients of digestibility of the dry substance for the different 
lots were as follows : 

1 Bui. 172. 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 



73 



Ration 



Hay, 1 part ; corn, 1 part . 
Hay, 1 part ; corn, 3 parts 
Hay, 1 part ; corn, 5 parts 
Hay, 1 part ; corn, 4 parts 
linseed meal, 1 part . . 



Mainte- 
nance Lot 



69.3 

77.7 
78.7 

79.6 



One-third 
Feed Lot 



65.9 
71.9 

75.8 

76.9 



Two- 
thirds 
Feed Lot 



63.8 
68.8 
73.6 

75.04 



Full- 
peed 
Lot 



62.5 

64.7 
69.7 

76.0 



These differences in the digestibiUty of the dry substance 
were due to differences in the digestibihty of the carbohy- 
drates. The protein and fat were digested equally well by 
the different lots. 

Also, in experiments with cattle at the Mockern (Ger- 
many) Experiment Station, in experiments with cattle by 
Eckles at the Missouri Experiment Station,^ and in experi- 
ments with sheep by Jordan and Jenter at the New York 
(Geneva) Experiment Station, ^ it was found that the digesti- 
bihty decreased as the amount of the ration was increased. 

Excess of Non-nitrogenous Nutrients. — If the ration 
contains an excess of carbohydrates in proportion to the 
amount of protein, the digestibihty, especially of the pro- 
tein, will be decreased considerably. Kellner ^ states that 
this depression is hable to occur in ruminants if the ration 
contains more than 8 to 10 parts of digestible carbohydrates 
and fats to each part of digestible protein. In case of pigs, 
he places* the limit as 12 parts of digestible carbohydrates and 
fats to each part of digestible protein. If the proportion of 
carbohydrates and fats is in excess of these figures, he states 
that the ration will be less digestible. 

1 Research Bui. 4 and 7. 2 BuI. 141. 

3 "Scieijtific Feeding of Animals," p. 39. 



74 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Addition of Nitrogenous Nutrients. — The increase of the 
protein in a ration causes not only no depression of digesti- 
bihty but, as just stated, it may increase the digestibihty of 
the carbohydrates if there is an excess of them in the ration. 
Moreover, it seems from experiments at the lUinois Experiment 
Station that the addition of protein increases the digestibihty 
of the entire ration. In an experiment by Mumford, Grind- 
ley, Hall, Emmett, Joseph, and AUison,^ eight steers were 
fed a ration consisting of hay 1 part, and corn 5 parts. 
Then one part of the corn was removed and an equal amount 
of linseed meal (a feed containing about 34 per cent of pro- 
tein) was substituted for it. The average coefficients of 
digestibility upon these two rations were as follows : 



Ration 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 


Hay, 1 part ; corn, 5 parts 

Hay, 1 part ; corn, 4 parts ; 

linseed meal, 1 part . 


74.5 
76.9 


51.3 

67.7 


78.3 
79.9 


79.3 
83.5 





The same thing, though in less degree, is indicated by ex- 
periments with hogs at the Illinois Station ^ by Dietrich 
and Grindley. 

Digestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs. — The practical 
stock feeder is not especially interested in the coefficients of 
digestibihty of feedingstuffs nor in the chemical composition 
of feedingstuffs, provided he knows their content of digestible 
nutrients. Knowing the chemical composition of a feed and 
knowing its coefficients of digestibility, it is an easy matter to 
calculate the amounts of digestible nutrients in the feed. 

1 111. Agr. Exp, Sta. Bui. 172. 2 BuI. 170. 



THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 75 

The percentage of each nutrient in the feed, multiphed by 
the corresponding coefficient of digestibihty, and the result 
divided by 100, gives the percentage of each digestible nu- 
trient in the feed. If the corn in the example cited on page 
58 contained 9.80 per cent of crude protein, 82.08 per cent 
of which was digestible, the percentage of digestible crude 
protein in the corn would be 9.80 times 82.08 divided by 
100, or 8.04. In other words, 100 pounds of the corn con- 
tained 8.04 pounds of digestible crude protein. The per- 
centage of the other digestible nutrients of the corn may be 
obtained in similar manner. In the formation of rations, 
it is the percentage of digestible nutrients which are in the 
feeds, rather than the percentage of total nutrients which 
must be considered. The average content of digestible 
nutrients in feedingstuffs for horses, cattle, and sheep is 
given in Table 29, of the Appendix. Inasmuch as hogs do 
not digest their feeds the same as the other farm animals. 
Table 30, giving the average content of digestible nutrients 
in feedingstuffs for hogs, is given. 



CHAPTER V 

FUNCTIONS OF THE FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE 
ANIMAL BODY 

In describing the digestion and absorption of the feed 
nutrients thus far, we have not found them to be of any nu- 
tritive value to the animal body. However, after digestion 
and absorption, the nutrients are ready for distribution by 
the blood for the utilization of the different tissues of the 
body for various purposes. 

Metabolism. — The sum of all the changes which the 
absorbed food undergoes in the body is known as me- 
tabolism. The term metaboUsm includes all the changes 
and transformations which the digested nutrients undergo 
from the time they are absorbed until they are finally excreted 
from the body. It covers all the chemical changes in the 
animal body which constitute the life of the animal. Thus, 
the repair of body tissue, growth, the storage of fat, and the 
production of milk are all included in the processes of me- 
tabolism. On the other hand, the breaking down of the pro- 
tein tissues and the oxidation of fat and carbohydrates for 
the liberation of their energy are also included in the meta- 
boHc processes. Thus the functions of the digested and ab- 
sorbed nutrients of the feed are all included under the term, 
metabolism. 

In general, animals use food in three ways: (1) for the 
formation, growth, and repair of the muscles, bones, ten- 

76 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 11 

dons, skin, hair, hoof, horn, and of the various organs, 
membranes, and secretions ; (2) as fuel for the liberation of 
energy to produce work or heat; (3) for the formation of 
body fat; and (4) for the formation of body glycogen. 

Functions of Water. — The importance of water to the 
animal organism is shown by the fact that ordinarily from 
one-third to two-thirds of the weight of the animal body 
consists of water. Water is necessary to the life of every 
cell. It acts as a solvent for various substances, it is a 
carrier of nourishment to the cells, and it removes waste 
products away from the cells. It often assists in cooling 
the body by evaporation from the skin as perspiration. It 
is necessary also for many important chemical reactions 
which take place in the animal body. Water ordinarily is 
excreted from the body, principally in the urine, and to a 
slight extent in the perspiration, feces, and water vapor 
from the lungs. 

Functions of Mineral Matter. — It was noted under the 
discussion of the chemical composition of the animal body 
that from 3 to 6 per cent of the body is composed of mineral 
matter. The skeleton, especially, the protein tissues, the 
blood, and the body fluids all contain a certain amount of 
mineral matter. 

Thus, the mineral matter of the feed is used for the forma- 
tion and repair of the bones, the protein tissues, and the body 
fluids, such as the blood, the milk, and the digestive fluids. 
The mineral matter is also used to maintain the neutrality, 
alkalinity, or acidity, as the case may be, of the fluids and 
tissues of the body. It has no value for the production of 
fat or for the liberation of energy. Mineral matter is ex- 
creted from the body in the feces, urine, and, to a shght 



78 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



extent, in the perspiration. In case of the herbivora, cal- 
cium and phosphorus are excreted almost entirely in the 
feces, while potassium is excreted in both the feces and 
urine. Mineral matter in the ration is absolutely necessary 
to the animal. Young animals fail to develop properly, or 
even may die if given an insufficient supply of mineral 
matter. If a mature animal is deprived of even common 
salt, it becomes weak, languid, and finally cUes. When the 




Fig. 



13. — These pigs were fed a ration deficient in phosphorus. 
(Wisconsin Experiment Station.) 



ration is deficient in mineral matter, the mineral matter of 
the bones is used to supply the deficiency for a time. 

Ordinarily, the rations of our farm animals are not defi- 
cient in mineral matter, with the exception of salt, which 
usually must be added to all rations. The mineral matter 
in most feeds is sufficient, and those feeds which are low in 
mineral matter are fed usually in combination with other 
feeds which make up the deficiency. An exception to this 
statement is corn, a feed deficient in calcium, especially, 
and in phosphorus, to a certain extent, which often is fed 
to hogs without any supplement, or with supplementary 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 



79 



feeds which also are deficient in calcium, such as middlings, 
shorts, and red dog flour. Thus, when fed to immature 
pigs, corn should be supplemented by mineral matter in the 
form of rock phosphate, ashes, charcoal, salt, air-slacked 
Hme, and bone meal, which may be kept in a trough or self- 
feeder where they are accessible to the pigs at all times. For 




Fig. 14. — These pigs were fed the same ration as those in Figure 13, 
with the addition of phosphorus in the form of calcium phosphate. (Wis- 
consin Experiment Station.) 



other reasons, which will be discussed later, corn should be 
fed to growing pigs in combination with such feeds as milk, 
tankage, or alfalfa, clover, or blue grass pasture. Figure 13 
shows pigs whose rations were deficient in phosphorus. 
Figure 14 shows pigs fed the same ration as those in Figure 
13, but with the addition of phosphorus in the form of cal- 
cium phosphate. Figure 15 shows bones from hogs which 
received a ration low in calcium. Apparently the bones 



80 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



were broken and then healed again. Also the ration of 
growing colts fed on corn and timothy hay is hable to be 
deficient in calcium. Sometimes the ration of the dairy cow 




Fig. 15. — Abnormal bones from hogs whose rations were low in calcium 
(corn alone, and corn and soy beans). The bones seem to have been 
broken and to have healed again. (Ohio Experiment Station.) 

is deficient in mineral matter, owing to the large amount of 
it required for milk production. 

Functions of Crude Protein. — The functions of the 
proteins of the ration are as follows: (1) they serve as 
material for the repair and growth of the proteins of the 
tissues and fluids of the body, for foetal development in 
the pregnant animal, and for milk production in the milk- 
producing animal ; (2) they may serve as a source of energy ; 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 81 

(3) they may serve as a source of body fat ; and (4) they 
may serve as a source of body glycogen. 

The protein tissues of the body, especially the more active 
ones, are continually being broken down or worn out and 
must be repaired in order to maintain the hfe of the animal. 
It was stated that in digestion, the proteins are split up into 
the simple amino acids of which they are composed and are 
absorbed in this form. The absorbed amino acids are carried 
by the blood to the various protein tissues of the body, such 
as the muscular tissue, the connective tissue, etc. Inasmuch 
as all proteins are not composed of the same amino acids, 
each tissue probably selects from the blood only those amino 
acids which can be used for its repair. 

It has already been shown that growth consists largely 
of an increase of the protein tissues of the body. Thus the 
tissues take up from the blood those amino acids which 
may be used for growth and build them up into the tissue 
proteins. Also they may be used for foetal development 
or milk production. If there is any surplus of amino acids 
in the blood above the needs of the protein tissues for repair 
and growth, it may be oxidized for the liberation of energy. 
The principal end products of the oxidation of the amino 
acids are water, carbon dioxide, urea, ammonia, and uric 
acid. The carbon dioxide is excreted largely through the 
lungs, and the other products are excreted through the 
urine, mainly, and through the perspiration, to a slight 
extent. 

Any surplus of amino acids above the demands of the body 
for repair and growth which is not used for fuel purposes 
probably may be converted into fat and glycogen and stored 
as such in the body, although this has never been proven 



82 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

definitely. According to Kellner/ one hundred pounds of 
digestible protein in the feed above the requirements of the 
body for repair and growth produces 23.5 pounds of body fat. 

As in the case of mineral matter, a certain amount of pro- 
tein is absolutely essential not only for the satisfactory 
development of the animal but for life itself. An animal 
fed on a protein-free ration will soon starve to death, while 
an animal receiving an insufficient amount will not make 
a satisfactory development. 

It has already been stated that certain amino acids are 
absolutely essential to life, while a certain amino acid is 
essential only to growth. Thus not only must the ration 
contain a sufficient amount of protein, but the protein 
must contain those amino acids which are essential for 
the maintenance and growth of the body tissues. It has 
already been shown that the proteins may differ greatly 
in their content of the different amino acids and, conse- 
quently, that they may differ in nutritive value. Thus, 
if a protein hke zein of corn which is lacking in essential 
amino acids is fed, it cannot be used for repair or growth 
unless the missing amino acids are supplied in some other 
protein. In an experiment with a man,^ it has been found 
that the following proteins ranked in the order named : 
meat, milk, rice, potato, bean, bread, and corn. In recent 
experiments by McCoUum with pigs at the Wisconsin 
Station,^ the following proteins ranked in the order named : 
skim milk, casein, corn, wheat, oats, linseed meal, wheat 
embryo. Thus, when feeds are used whose proteins contain 

1 "The Scientific Feeding of Animals," p. 64. 

2 Lusk, " Basis of Nutrition," p. 20. 

3 Jour, of Biol. Chem. XIX, 1914, p. 323. 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 83 

only a small amount of certain of the essential amino acids, 
larger amounts of feed must be fed in order to supply these 
acids, or they must be added to the ration by the use of a 
supplementary feed which contains them. 

Zein, the protein.which makes up more than half the crude 
protein of corn, is entirely lacking in three amino acids, one 
of which is essential to life, and another of which is essential 




Fig. 16. — The ration of these pigs was deficient in the amount and 
quality of protein. Another pig of this lot died before this photograph was 
taken. The " runt " died the day after this photograph was taken. 
(Illinois Experiment Station.) 

to growth. Thus corn, when fed alone, as is often done in 
case of hogs, does not furnish enough of these two essential 
amino acids to satisfactorily fulfill the requirements of the 
animal. In experiments at the Illinois Experiment Station,^ 
by Emmett, Grindley, Joseph, and WiUiams, pigs fed 
corn, a small amount of blood-meal, and mineral matter 
were stunted in their growth, had weak, hght bones, lost 

1 Bui. 168. 



84 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



their appetites, became weak, languid, stiff in their hind 
quarters, and, in several cases, died. Figure 16 shows the 
low protein lot of pigs of this experiment. The smaller pig 
died the day after the photograph was taken and another 
pig of this lot died before the photograph was taken. On 




, r'-^: i2* ?, 'K^ 



i^-xW^m 



Fig. 17. The ration of these pigs was the same as that of the pigs 
shown in Figure 16 with the addition of sufficient protein of the proper 
quality. (Illinois Experiment Station.) 

the other hand, pigs fed a liberal amount of blood-meal in 
addition to corn and mineral matter made a normal growth. 
Figure 17 shows another lot of this experiment which re- 
ceived a sufficient amount of blood-meal to remedy the de- 
fects of the corn protein. Figure 18 shows cross-sections of 
some of the bones of a few of the pigs of this experiment. 
Note that the bones of the medium and high protein lots 







cH 




Oi 




*1l 




1 




•' 1 




1 


§ 


0| 


o 


|g / to 






z 












y 




z 




z 




fe 




B 




LJ 












O 

5 

X 


^ly 




.> 




1 




^\ 




*1{ 




^ T 




^ i 


s 


^1 


§ 


k^i 

1 


k 




Z 


1 


Z 


) 


S 












2 

y 


s 


g 

^ 




o 


^1 






o 




D 


* 7 


X 


0\ 


J 


•■ 1 


5 
2 


1 
( 


o 

X 



85 



86 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

have thicker walls than those of the low protein lot. Figure 
19 shows a lot of pigs at the beginning of an experiment in 
which they were fed corn and mineral matter. Figure 20 
shows the same pigs after 196 days on this ration. Thus, 
when fed to hogs, and especially to growing pigs, corn should 
be supplemented not only by mineral matter but also by 




Fig. 19. — Pigs at the beginning of a 196-day feeding period upon corn 
alone. Average weight; 39 pounds. (Kentucky Experiment Station.) 

some nitrogenous feed, as tankage, middlings, oil meal, 
clover or alfalfa pasture, which furnishes the essential 
amino acids in which corn is deficient. To the other classes 
of farm animals, corn often is fed with a nitrogenous rough- 
age as clover or alfalfa hay which, to a large extent at least, 
may furnish the essential amino acids in which the corn is 
deficient. However, when corn is fed to growing animals with 
a non-nitrogenous roughage, such as corn silage or timothy 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 87 

hay, it may be necessary to add a nitrogenous concentrate, as 
linseed oil meal or bran, to supply the deficient amino acids. 
Wheat gliadin, the protein which makes up about half the 
crude protein of wheat, is deficient in lysine, an amino 
acid which is essential to growth. Thus in experiments by 
Hart and McCollum at the Wisconsin Station, ^ wheat and 
mineral matter did not produce maximum growth in pigs. 





**"■ i 


.^ 






mmymi..%4mi^m 


*-*-:^.,»-»Hlp^ . .. 


:^ " M 


^ *'-ar- • 



Fig. 20. — The same pigs as shown in Figure 19 after 196 days of feeding corn 
alone. Average weight, 64 pounds. (Kentucky Experiment Station.) 

while the addition of a small amount of casein (which con- 
tains all the essential amino acids) caused normal growth. 
Gliadin from rye and the protein, hordein, from barley also 
will not produce maximum growth. 

Functions of Carbohydrates. — The functions of the car- 
bohydrates of the feed, i.e. the starches, sugars, celluloses, 
pentosans, etc., are as follows: (1) to serve as fuel for the 
liberation of energy ; (2) to serve as a source of body fat ; 
and (3) to serve as a source of glycogen in the animal body. 

1 Jour, of Biol. Chem. XIX, 1914, p. 373. 



88 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

The carbohydrates in the ordinary ration of the corn- 
belt serve as the principal source of energy to the animal 
body. True, the protein and fat also may serve the same 
purpose but, as the former is more expensive and the latter 
not so plentiful, the carbohydrates usually furnish the larger 
part of the fuel for the animal body. 

It was stated that the starches and sugars are absorbed 
in the form of glucose and other simple sugars very similar 
to glucose, and a small amount of organic acids. They are 
carried by the blood to the hver which acts as a storehouse 
and regulator to the supply of glucose in the blood. In the 
liver, glucose is changed to glycogen or animal starch and 
stored. Then as needed, the glycogen is reconverted to 
glucose, which passes again into the blood and is carried to 
the tissues, where it may be changed back into glycogen and 
temporarily stored before it is oxidized, or it may be oxidized 
directly with the Hberation of energy and the formation of 
carbon dioxide, which is excreted through the lungs, and 
water, which is excreted mainly through the urine and to a 
slight extent through the lungs and perspiration. The crude 
fiber is absorbed in the form of salts of organic acids, which 
probably are oxidized in the tissues with the hberation of 
energy and the formation of carbon dioxide and water. 

If there is any surplus of carbohydrates above the needs of 
the body for energy, it may be converted into fat and stored 
in the body. It was long contended that carbohydrates could 
not serve as a source of body fat, but it has been proven that 
they do have this function. In fact, the carbohydrates, owing 
to the high cost of protein and the scarcity of fat in ordinary 
rations, are the most important source of body fat in most 
feeding operations. This is true especially in the corn-belt. 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 89 

The different kinds of carbohydrates have different values 
for fat production. Thus 100 pounds of digestible starch 
or crude fiber fed above the maintenance requirement of 
the animal may produce about 25 pounds of body fat, while 
the same amount of digestible cane sugar may produce only 
19 pounds of fat. According to Kellner/ protein and car- 
bohydrates have about^the same values as fat producers. 

Functions of Fat. — The functions of the fat of the feed 
are: (1) to serve as fuel for the Hberation of energy; and 
(2) to serve as a source of the body fat. 

The absorbed fat is carried by the blood to the muscular 
tissues, where it may be oxidized immediately for the libera- 
tion of energy. The end products of the oxidation are car- 
bon dioxide and water. The carbon dioxide is excreted 
mainly through the lungs, and the water is excreted mainly 
through the urine. 

Any excess of fat above the needs of the body for the produc- 
tion of energy may be stored in the cells of the tissues as body 
fat. The body fat acts as a reserve food supply which may 
be called upon to furnish energy to the animal body at any 
time when the ration is insufficient to supply its demands. 

One hundred pounds of cUgestible fat in the ration above 
the requirements of the animal for maintenance may form 
from 47 to 60 pounds of body fat. In general, fat is about 
2\ times as valuable for the production of body fat as the 
same amount of protein or carbohydrates. 

The Nutritive Ratio. — Inasmuch as it is very difficult 
to remember even approximately the relative amounts of 
digestible nutrients in the feedingstuffs, scientists have 
endeavored to simphfy it by introducing the term, nutritive 

1 "The Scientific Feeding of Animals," p. 75. 



90 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

ratio. The nutritive ratio, although it does not state the 
amounts of the different nutrients in a feedingstuff, does 
indicate the relative proportion of the nutrients present. 

The nutritive ratio is the ratio of digestible nitrogenous 
nutrients to digestible non-nitrogenous nutrients in a feed 
or ration ; i.e. it is the ratio of digestible crude protein to 
digestible carbohydrates and digestible fat. The nutritive 
ratio may be regarded as expressing the relative value of 
feeds as flesh-, and as fat-, or energy-formers. The nutritive 
ratio indicates at a glance whether a feedingstuff is suitable 
for growing, fattening, work, or milk-producing animals, or 
whether it should be used in combination with other feeds, in 
order to have the proper proportion of nutrients in the ration. 

Inasmuch as fat is about 2 J times as valuable for fat produc- 
tion as protein and carbohydrates and, as was stated on page 
19, as fat contains about 2\ times as much energy as the same 
amount of protein and carbohydrates, the amount of digestible 
fat is multiphed by 2| and added to the amount of digestible 
carbohydrates, and the sum is then divided by the amount of 
digestible protein. The first term of the ratio is always "1," 
while the second term is obtained by the following formula : 

digestible carbohydrates + 2\ (digestible fat) _cy^ , 
digestible protein 

The nutritive ratio is written as '^ 1 : 6 " or '' 1 : 14," or 
whatever it may be. It is read as '' one to six," or '' one 
to fourteen." Thus one finds the nutritive ratio of corn 
as follows : 100 pounds of corn contain 7.8 pounds of digest- 
ible protein, 66.8 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 4.3 
pounds of digestible fat. Then, substituting in the above 
formula : 



FEED NUTRIENTS IN THE ANIMAL BODY 



91 



66.8 + 2^(4.3) 

7.8 



= 9.8 



Therefore the nutritive ratio of corn is 1 : 9.8. 

The nutritive ratio of a ration containing two or more 
feeds is obtained by calculating from Table 29 or 30 of the 
Appendix, the amount of digestible protein, digestible car- 
bohydrates, and digestible fat in the ration and substituting 
these values in the above formula. Thus one calculates the 
nutritive ratio of a ration of 16 pounds of corn, 3 pounds of 
linseed oil meal, and 8 pounds of clover hay as follows : 





Digestible 


Digestible 


Digestible 




Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 




Lh. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


3 lb. oil meal . . . 


0.91 


0.96 


0.21 


16 lb. corn .... 


1.25 


10.69 


0.69 


8 lb. clover hay . . 


0.57 


3.02 


0.14 


Total ration . . 


2.73 


14.67 


1.04 



14.67 + 2^(1.04) 
2.73 



= 6.2 



Therefore the nutritive ratio of the ration is 1 : 6.2. 

Ordinarily, a nutritive ratio of 1:6 or less is called a 
narrow ratio, i.e. the feedingstuff or ration contains a 
relatively large amount of protein and a relatively small 
amount of carbohydrates and fat. A ratio of 1:7 to 1:9 
is called a medium ratio, i.e. there is present a medium 
amount gf protein and a medium amount of carbohydrates 
and fat. A ratio of 1 : 10 or greater is called a wide ratio, 
i.e. the proportion of protein to carbohydrates and fats is 
relatively small. The nutritive ratios vary considerably 
for different feeds, e.g. from 1:0.1 in the case of dried 
blood to 1 : 57.9 in the case of rye straw. 



CHAPTER VI 

ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES IN 
THE ANIMAL BODY 

Energy is defined by the physicist as the capacity of per- 
forming work. Inasmuch as the muscular tissues of farm 
animals are always doing a certain amount of work, it is of 
interest to study the ways in which animals utilize energy 
and to study the values of the different nutrients and the 
different feedingstuffs as sources of energy. 

There are two kinds of energy, kinetic and potential. 
Kinetic energy is energy due to motion ; e.g. a moving train 
has energy due to its motion ; heat is a form of energy due 
to the motion of the heat waves. In other words, kinetic is 
active energy. Potential energy is energy due to position 
or composition; e.g. a coiled watch spring has energy due 
to its position; starch has energy due to its composi- 
tion. Potential energy is stored energy. These two forms 
of energy are interchangeable from one to the other. 
Thus the plant by means of its chlorophyll can take the 
kinetic energy or heat of the sun's rays and change it to 
the potential form, storing it in the form of proteins, car- 
bohydrates, and fats. This potential energy may be changed 
back to kinetic form by burning the plant and liberating the 
stored energy in the kinetic form as heat. In similar manner, 
the animal can take the potential energy of its feed and 

92 



ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 93 

change it to kinetic form to warm the body, or to do work ; 
or the animal can store a part of the potential energy of the 
feed in the animal body in the potential form as fat. The 
animal, however, is unable to utilize directly the kinetic 
energy of the sun's rays as does the plant, and, consequently 
the animal kingdom is dependent for its supply upon the 
potential or stored-up energy of the vegetable kingdom. 
Thus, besides furnishing the proteins and mineral matter 
necessary for the repair and growth of the animal, the feed 
is the sole source of the energy so essential to all the phe- 
nomena of life. 

The units used for the measurement of energy are the 
Calorie and the therm. A Calorie is the amount of energy 
in the form of heat required to raise the temperature of 
one kilogram of water through one degree Centigrade, or 
of one pound of water through four degrees Fahrenheit. A 
therm is one thousand Calories. When speaking of the 
energy values of feedingstuffs, the therm is used more gen- 
erally ; while when speaking of the energy values of human 
foods, the Calorie is commonly used. 

Gross Energy or Heat of Combustion. — The total amount 
of energy stored in a feedingstuff is called its gross energy 
or the heat of combustion. The gross energy of a feed 
is determined by burning it in an apparatus known as the 
homb calorimeter, which consists essentially of a steel cyl- 
inder or^bomb surrounded by a knowTi quantity of water. 
A sample of the feedingstuff is placed in the bomb, which is 
then filled with oxygen to insure complete combustion. The 
sample is ignited by means of an electric current, and the 
amount of heat liberated in the combustion is determined 
from the rise in the temperature of the water surrounding 




Fig. 21. — Section of a bomb calorimeter. (Storrs Experiment Station.) 
U, outer bucket ; T, inner bucket ; Q, metal pail ; A, water ; S, stirring appa- 
ratus ; B, M, K, steel bomb, lined with platinum ; O, platinum dish in which 
feed sample is placed ; G, valve for letting in oxygen ; V, W, H, I, electrical 
connections. 

94 



ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 95 

the bomb. Figure 21 shows a cross-section of a bomb calo- 
rimeter. 

The gross energy of one pound of each nutrient is approxi- 
mately as follows: protein, 2.6 therms; carbohydrates, 1.9 
therms ; and fat, 4.2 therms. The gross energy of the hays 
and straws is about 1.7 therms per pound, while that of the 
grains and other concentrates usually is from 1.7 to 2.0 
therms per pound. A knowledge of the gross energy values 
of feedingstuffs, however, is of httle practical value, as it 
rarely if ever happens that all of the energ}^ stored up in the 
feed is available to the animal for its life processes. 

Metabolizable or Available Energy. — Not all the energy 
of a feedingstuff is accessible to the animal body. Some of 
the energy of the feed passes through the body in unhberated 
form in the feces as the undigested food residue. Some of 
the energy passes out of the body unliberated in the form of 
combustible gases, as methane and hydrogen, which are 
formed during the fermentation of the feed in the rumen and 
large intestine. Further, some unliberated energy is lost by 
the excretion of only partially oxidized substances, as urea 
in the urine. 

Thus one must differentiate between the amount of the 
gross energy of a feed and the amount of energy which 
actually is hberated or made available in the animal body. 
That part of the gross energy which may be liberated in or 
utilized by the animal in the processes of metabolism is 
called the metabolizable energy or available energy of the 
feed. Mathematically, the metabohzable energy of a feed- 
ingstuff may be regarded as the total energy of the feed less 
the energy of the feces, urine, and excreted gases. 

The gross energy of a feed may be compared to the heat 



96 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



of combustion of coal placed under the boilers of a steam 
engine. Thus one may compare the losses of energy in the 
animal body to the unburned or only partially burned soot, 
smoke, and cinders of the coal. The energy of the coal 
which actually is liberated under the boiler of the engine 




Fig. 22. 



Respiration calorimeter at the Institute of Animal Nutrition, 
State College, Pa. 



corresponds to the metabohzable or available energy of the 
feed. 

The metabohzable energy of a feedingstuff is determined 
by means of the bomb calorimeter already mentioned, and 
an apparatus known as the respiration calorimeter. The 
respiration calorimeter is a very comphcated apparatus, by 
means of which the amounts of gas, urine, feces, and heat 



ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 97 

excreted by an animal can be measured. It consists of a 
closed chamber large enough to accommodate the animal 
under experimentation. Fresh air is pumped into the 
chamber and the vitiated air is pumped out and analyzed 
to determine the gases excreted by the animal. The feces 
are collected by means of a digestion harness, and the urine 
by means of a rubber funnel and duct strapped on to the 
belly of the animal. The heat given off by the animal is 
determined by the rise in temperature of a known amount 
of water which flows through radiators in the chamber and 
absorbs the heat given off by the animal. The only res- 
piration calorimeter in this country large enough for exper- 
iments with cattle is that used by Armsby at the Institute 
of Animal Nutrition of the Pennsylvania State College.^ 
Figure 22 shows this respiration calorimeter. 

In determining the metabolizable energy of a feedingstuff, 
its gross energy is determined by the bomb calorimeter. 
A known amount of it is fed to an animal wearing a digestion 
harness and urine funnel in the respiration calorimeter. The 
feces, urine, and combustible gases are collected, and the 
energy lost through them is determined by means of the 
bomb calorimeter. The energy of the urine, feces, and 
gases subtracted from the gross energy of the feedingstuff 
gives the amount of the metabohzable energy in the feeding- 
stuff. 

Uses ^of the Metabolizable Energy. — The metabolizable 
energy of the ration serves for three general purposes in the 
animal body: (1) it suppKes energy for carrying on the 
different forms of work of the animal body ; (2) in certain 

^ For a detailed description of this respiration calorimeter, see Penn. 
Exp. Sta. Bui. 104. • 



98 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

special cases, it supplies energy in the form of heat to keep 
the body warm ; and (3) if the supply is in excess of the 
demands of the body for the first and second purposes, a 
portion of it may be stored up as gain of body tissue, espe- 
cially as fat, or it may be used for milk production. 

The work of the animal body may be regarded as made 
up of the following forms: (1) work of the vital processes, 
including circulation and respiration ; (2) work of digestion 
and absorption, including mastication, swallowing, rumina- 
tion, peristaltic movements, and the activity of the various 
digestive glands ; and (3) work of the voluntary muscles, 
such as walking and pulling. 

The following diagram modified from Armsby,^ briefly 
summarizes the uses of the metabolizable energy of the 
feed: 

f Of vital process 
f Work <j Of digestion and absorption 
I Of voluntary muscles 
Metabolizable ^ ^^^^ production 



energy 



Storage of energy 



Work of the Vital Processes. — A certain amount of energy 
is in constant demand for the performance of the work of 
the vital organs, such as the heart and lungs. The amount 
of energy expended in this manner is not under control of 
the animal, as these organs cease their labors only at death. 
Thus, it is apparent that in the living animal there always 
is an expenditure of a certain amount of energy for carrying 
on the vital processes of the body. If there is not enough 
energy in the ration for this purpose the animal uses its body 

1 "Principles of Animal Nutrition," p. 339. 



i 



ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 99 

glycogen and fat to furnish energy for the deficiency. After 
the body fat is used up, the animal uses the protein tissues 
of the body as a source of energy for the running of the vital 
organs, and then soon dies of starvation. 

Work of Digestion and Absorption. — The consumption 
of feed by an animal is always accompanied and followed 
by a large increase in the amount of energy expended. This 
increase was formerly thought to be due entirely to the energy 
expended in the work of mastication, swallowing, rumination, 
fermentation, peristalsis, secretion of the digestive juices, 
and the distribution of the absorbed nutrients. Hence, it 
was spoken of as the energy expended for the work of diges- 
tion. Later experiments with dogs, cats, and men, however, 
appear to have shown that the energy expended in the 
mechanical work of digestion is but a small part of the in- 
creased expenditure of energy due to the consumption of 
food. In case of the carnivora and man, the greater part 
of the increased expenditure of energy seems to be due to an 
effect which the absorbed nutrients, particularly the amino 
acids, have upon the metabolism of the cells, stimulating 
them to higher oxidation and consequent liberation of energy 
in the form of heat. Thus the term, " work of digestion," as 
appUed to the increased expenditure of energy after food 
consumption, is not strictly true, but in lieu of a better term 
we shall continue to use i}. In herbivora, and especially in 
ruminants, the expenditure of energy due to actual work of 
digestion is much greater than in carnivora, due to the large 
amount of energy expended in the work of mastication and 
rumination, and to the loss of energy as heat of fermentation. 
However, whether the increased expenditure of energy after 
food consumption is due to actual work of digestion or to 



100 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

stimulation of the metabolism by the products of digestion, 
the fact remains that there is a considerable amount of energy 
wasted in the form of heat when an animal consumes a feed. 
Armsby found that in case of steers about one-fourth of the 
gross energy of the ration was liberated in the form of heat. 
This means that a certain amount of the metabohzable 
energy of the ration is wasted as far as having any value 
for maintenance of, or production by, the animal is con- 
cerned. 

Net Energy. — The part of the metabohzable energy of 
a feed which remains after deducting the amount of energy 
expended in the so-called '' work of digestion," is called its 
net energy. The net energy is the measure of the net 
advantage derived by the body from the feed. In other 
words, the net energy of a f eedingstuff represents the amount 
of energy which it may contribute to the animal body for 
maintenance and for productive purposes. Mathematically, 
the net energy may be defined as the gross energy minus the 
losses of chemical energy in the excreta and the increased 
heat production consequent upon the consumption of the 
feed. 

Returning again to the comparison of the animal body 
with the steam engine, we may assume that the engine is 
self-stoking. In that case, not all of the energy liberated 
under the boiler is available to the engine for the production 
of work. A certain amount of it must be expended for the 
operation of the self-stoking apparatus which puts the fuel 
under the boilers. This expenditure of energy corresponds 
to the expenditure in the animal body for the digestion, 
absorption, and distribution of the nutrients of the ration. 
The amount of the energy of the coal which remains after 



ENEBGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 101 

making this deduction corresponds to the net energy of the 
feed. 

The amount of net energy in a f eedingstuff is obtained by 
determining by means of the respiration calorimeter the 
increased amount of energy expended by the animal after 
consuming the feedingstuffs, and subtracting this increase 
from the metabohzable energy. The result is the net energy. 
Armsby has found that only 55 to 70 per cent of the metab- 
ohzable energy of the ration may be utilized for maintenance 
and for productive purposes. As yet the net energy values 
of only 15 or 18 feeds have been actually determined, owing 
to the great expenditure of money, time, and labor necessary 
in their determination. However, Armsby and Fries ^ and 
Kellner ^ have worked out a method by which the net 
energy values of feedingstuffs may be calculated with some 
degree of accuracy. The net energy values of the common 
feedingstuffs as calculated by Armsby are given in Table 
31, of the Appendix. These values are fairly accurate for 
these feeds when fed to cattle, sheep, and horses, but they 
have little value in case of hogs. 

Net Energy Value of Nutrients. — In general, the average 
net energy values of the digested nutrients expressed in 
therms per pound are approximately as follows : protein, 
1.02; carbohydrates, 1.00; and fat, 2.25. Thus for the 
production of energy, protein and carbohydrates have 
practically the same value, while fat is about- 2| times as 
valuable. 

Work of the Voluntary Muscles. — Any surplus of net 
energy above the maintenance requirement and, in special 

1 Penn. Exp. Sta. Bui. 71 ; Jour. Agr. Res., Ill, 6, p. 486, 

2 " Scientific.Feeding of Animals," p. 82. 



102 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

cases, the requirements for heat production, is available to 
the animal for the work of the voluntary muscles, such as 
walking, pulling, carrying, etc. However, not all the net 
energy available for the production of voluntary work can 
be recovered in the form of work. A certain amount is 
lost in the form of heat during the transformation. This 
loss may be compared to the loss of energy as heat occurring 
in any gas, gasoline, or other internal combustion engine. 
The gas is oxidized or ^exploded in the cyhnders of the engine 
with the liberation of energy. In a comparable manner 
the digested and absorbed nutrients of the feed are oxidized 
in the cells of the muscular tissue of the animal with the 
Hberation of energy. In either case, a considerable part 
of the energy liberated is not recovered as work but is lost 
in the form of heat. Anyone who has had experience with 
gas engines is familiar with the fact that only a fraction of 
the energy of the fuel can be recovered as work. A similar 
loss occurs in the cells of the muscles of the animal. When 
the nutrients are oxidized, a considerable amount of the 
energy {i.e. the net energy of the feed) is lost in the form 
of heat. Thus, on a cold day one walks faster, or slaps his 
arms, or stamps his feet, or shivers in order that the body 
may have the benefit of the heat which is generated in the 
performance of this work. 

Coefficient of Utilization. — The percentage of the energy 
of the fuel which may be recovered by a motor in the form 
of work is known as the ^' coefficient of utilization." The 
coefficient of utilization with respect to the animal takes 
account only of the loss which occurs in the conversion of 
the net energy into work. That is, it is the percentage of 
the net energy of the ration (not the gross energy of the fuel 



ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 103 

as in case of the engine) , which may be recovered in tlie form 
of work. In experiments with men, it was found that 28 to 
37 per cent of the net energy was recovered as work. Dogs 
recovered 29 to 31 per cent, and horses 29 to 38 per cent. 
In general, about one-third of the net energy may be re- 
covered in the form of voluntary work, i.e. the coefficient 
of utilization is about 33 per cent. Computed on the basis 
of the gross energy of the ration, it is about 20 percent. The 
best steam engines have about the same coefficient of utili- 
zation, while the average steam engine usually falls below 10 
per cent. Good internal combustion engines range from 18 
to 25 per cent. 

Heat Production. — All warm blooded animals, such as 
man, the horse, cow, hog, etc., must maintain their body 
temperature at a practically constant level. If there is 
any considerable increase or decrease in the body tempera- 
ture, the result is usually fatal to the animal. There is 
always a certain amount of heat generated in the Kving 
animal coming from the energy liberated in the work of the 
vital processes, the so-called work of digestion, and any 
voluntary muscular work done by the animal. Consequently 
a certain amount of heat is always being given off by the 
animal body by radiation and conduction. In mild weather 
the heat generated in the ordinary functions of the body is 
sufficient to maintain the body temperature. In fact, in 
warm weather, or when the amount of heat Uberated is 
increased by excessive muscular work, the heat is generated 
by the body more rapidly than it can be disposed of by con- 
duction and radiation. In such instances the body relieves 
itself of the surplus heat by the evaporation of water or 
perspiration from the surface of the body. In other words, 



104 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

the animal sweats. If the heat is generated more rapidly 
than it can be removed by conduction, radiation, and 
perspiration combined, the body temperature rises and the 
animal suffers from sunstroke. 

In cold weather, the animal looses heat by radiation and 
conduction much more rapidly than in warm weather. 
Consequently, oftentimes the heat produced in the ordinary 
processes of the body is not sufficient to maintain the tem- 
perature of the body and the animal must oxidize some of 
its body tissue or a part of its ration in order to provide heat 
to maintain the body temperature. If this does not suffice 
to maintain the body temperature, the animal freezes to 
death. Thus a man eats more in winter than in summer in 
order to provide extra fuel for keeping the body warm. The 
principle is the same as when one burns more coal in the 
furnace on a cold day in order to keep up the temperature 
of the house. Horses and hogs especially are susceptible 
to cold weather, and must use a part of their ration to keep 
them warm, unless properly protected. Cattle and sheep 
in ordinary winter weather do not do this, as the heat gen- 
erated in the extensive fermentations in their digestive tract 
is sufficient usually to maintain their body temperature. 
If the weather is damp and windy, or if they are given very 
cold water to drink, it may be necessary even for them to 
burn feed to keep warm. Of course, energy expended in 
this way is a loss as far as economic production is concerned, 
and the feeder should avoid it, in so far as possible, by pro- 
viding a comfortable shelter, by removing the chill from 
the drinking water, and by offering water several times 
daily in cold weather so that large amounts of cold water 
will not be taken into the body at any one time. A shelter 



ENERGY IN FEEDINGSTUFFS AND ITS USES 105 

other than a dry, open shed is not necessary for beef cattle 
and sheep, except at calving or lambing time. Horses and 
hogs should have a fairly warm, comfortable enclosure. 

Storage of Energy. — The animal body differs from the 
machine in that any energy above the amount required for 
the different forms of work and for heat production is not 
wasted, but it may be stored in the body, principally as 
fat, or as protein tissue, and used for the production of work 
or heat at any subsequent time when the energy of the ration 
is insufficient, or it may be used for the production of milk. 
It should be noted, however, that all other demands of the 
body for energy, including maintenance, heat production, 
and voluntary work, must be satisfied before there can be 
any storage of energy or any energy available for milk pro- 
duction. 

Energy Values of Feedingstuffs. — From the standpoint 
of practical stockfeeding, it is the net energy contained in 
a feed which is of interest. Hence, in speaking of the energy 
values of feedingstuffs, one usually refers to the net energy 
values. Armsby's table showing the amounts of net energy 
contained in the more common feedingstuffs is given in Table 
31, of the Appendix. 

In general, feedingstuffs may be divided into two main 
groups according to the amounts of net energy contained 
in them. These two groups are (1) concentrates, and (2) 
roughages. 

Concentrates may be defined as feedingstuffs which con- 
tain a relatively large amount of net energy (or digestible 
nutrients) in a small bulk. Ordinarily, concentrates have 
a net energy value of 60 therms or more per 100 pounds of 
feed. As might be expected from their definition, they 



106 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

usually are highly nutritious in nature. Examples of 
common concentrates are corn, oats, the oil meals, mid- 
dhngs, and tankage. 

Concentrates often are divided into '' nitrogenous " and 
''non-nitrogenous " concentrates upon the basis of their pro- 
tein content. Nitrogenous concentrates are high in digestible 
protein. They usually contain 11 per cent or more of digest- 
ible protein. Examples are tankage, the oil meals, and 
middhngs. Non-nitrogenous concentrates are low in digest- 
ible protein and high in digestible carbohydrates and fats. 
They are often spoken of as carbonaceous concentrates. 
They usually contain less than 11 per cent of digestible 
protein. Examples are corn, oats, and barley. 

Roughages may be defined as feedingstuifs which contain 
a relatively small amount of net energy (or digestible nu- 
trients) in a large bulk. They contain a large percentage of 
crude fiber. Roughages usually contain less than 40 therms 
of net energy per 100 pounds, although there are a few 
exceptions. Nitrogenous roughages are relatively high in 
digestible protein. They usually contain 6 per cent or 
more of digestible protein. Examples are clover, alfalfa, 
and soy-bean hay. Non-nitrogenous roughages are relatively 
low in digestible protein. They usually contain less than 
6 per cent of digestible protein. Examples are timothy 
hay, corn stover, and oat straw. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 

Most of us will agree that the rations of our farm animals 
should be regulated, both in character and in quantity. 
This is necessary both from the standpoint of the physical 
well-being of the animal and from the financial well-being 
of the farmer. The appetite of the animal cannot be accepted 
as an accurate or practicable index of its feed requirements. 
If the farm animal, with the possible exception of the hog, 
is given free access to a number of different feedingstuffs 
and allowed to formulate its own ration, the result often- 
times will not only be disastrous from the financial stand- 
point, but, in many cases, it will mean permanent injury 
or even death to the animal. Thus the careful feeder al- 
ways selects the feeds and usually regulates the amounts 
eaten. 

Before taking up in detail the specific feed requirements of 
farm animals in terms of digestible nutrients and net energ}^, 
it may be well to mention some of the general guides that 
are followed more or less closely by practical feeders. A 
man cannot be a successful feeder unless he is thoroughly 
famihar with the practical as well as the scientific side of 
feeding. Of course, the only way to acquire a thorough 
knowledge of the practical side of stockfeeding is by actual 
experience, but in heu of this experience, a knowledge of 

107 



108 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

some of the general practices followed by feeders will be of 
some value. 

The ration should be so formulated as to satisfy the 
appetite without exceeding the requirements of the animal. 
It is obvious that unless the ration satisfies the appetite of 
the animal, the results will not be satisfactory, as the animal 
will be nervous and discontented. However, if the appetite 
is satisfied only by feeding more than the requirements of 
the animal, it will not only be uneconomical from a financial 
-standpoint, but it may injure the animal. Both these condi- 
tions may be satisfied approximately by feeding the required 
amount of digestible nutrients in such bulk that the animal 
is '' filled up " and the appetite is satisfied. In other words, 
it is accomphshed by feeding a proper amount and proportion 
of concentrates and roughages. In many cases, in actual 
practice the ration is regulated by limiting only the con- 
centrates and feeding the roughage ad libitum. For example, 
one usually limits the amount of corn which a hog eats while 
on pasture to that amount which, together with the pasture, 
will produce satisfactory gains. Then, if the hog is still 
hungry, he can eat the cheap roughage with safety until his 
appetite is satisfied. Although not always to be recom- 
mended, this method of regulating rations is often used. 
In feeding a very palatable roughage, as alfalfa hay or corn 
silage, it often is advisable to limit the amount of roughage 
fed in order to induce the animal to eat enough concentrates. 

Also it is usually desirable to feed several feeds rather 
than one or two, not only for the sake of variety in the ration 
but also because in feeding only one or two feeds some of the 
essential amino acids may not oe supplied in sufficient 
amounts for the best results. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 109 

Customary Rations for Farm Animals. — The following 
general rules will serve to give the inexperienced feeder a 
general idea of the nature and amount of the rations given 
to farm animals. It should be borne in mind that these 
rules should serve only as very general guides, to be modified 
to suit individual animals and different conditions with 
respect to the supply and relative costs of feeds. 

HORSES 

1. In general, feed 2 pounds of feed per day per 100 
pounds hve weight. 

2. For a foal at weaning time, feed 2 quarts (2 pounds) 
of oats per day and hay ad libitum. 

3. For a colt one year old, weighing about 700 pounds, 
feed 1 gallon (4 pounds) of oats per day and hay ad 
libitum. 

4. For a horse which is doing no work, feed hay ad libitum 
and as much concentrates as necessary to keep the animal in 
good condition. 

5. For a driving horse weighing about 1200 pounds, feed 
one pound of concentrates and one pound of roughage per 
day per 100 pounds Hve weight ; or feed 3 gallons (12 pounds) 
of oats daily with hay ad libitum. 

6. For a horse weighing about 1400 pounds, doing average 
farm work, feed IJ pounds of concentrates and 1 to IJ 
pounds of hay per day per 100 pounds five weight; or 
feed 24 ears of corn (17 pounds), or 1| gallons of oats (6 
pounds) and 15 ears of corn (10| pounds), or 3 gallons of 
oats (12 pounds) and 7 ears of corn (5 pounds) per day 
with hay ad libitum. 

7. For a horse weighing about 1500 pounds at hard farm 



110 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

work, feed l\ pounds of concentrates and 1 to IJ pounds of 
hay per day per 100 pounds live weight ; or feed 30 ears of 
corn (21 pounds), or 20 ears of corn (14 pounds) and l\ 
gallons of oats (6 pounds) per day with hay ad libitum. 

DAIRY CATTLE 

1. For young calves (weighing about 100 pounds), feed 
6 quarts of whole milk per day with clover or alfalfa hay 
ad libitum. 

2. For calves (weighing about 300 pounds), feed 8 quarts 
of skim milk and 3 pounds of concentrates per day and clover 
or alfalfa hay ad libitum. 

3. For the maintenance of dry cows, feed 20 pounds of 
corn silage and other roughage ad libitum, or 4 pounds of 
grain and roughage ad libitum, or run on pasture. 

4. The average cow requires about 24 pounds of cUgestible 
dry substance daily. About two-thirds or 16 pounds of the 
digestible dry substance of the ration should be in the form 
of roughage and one-third or 8 pounds in the form of concen- 
trates. 

5. Feed about 2 pounds of dry roughage,^ or 1 pound of 
dry roughage and 3 pounds of silage per 100 pounds of live 
weight together with concentrates as prescribed in Rules 
6 and 7. 

6. Feed one pound of concentrates ^ daily per every three 
pounds of milk produced daily and roughage ad libitum. 

^ When feeding silage due allowance should be made for the fact that it 
contains only about 25 per cent of dry substance. Thus 40 pounds of 
silage actually contain only about 10 pounds of dry substance. 

2 In feeding corn silage allowance should be made for the fact that it 
contains about 14 per cent of corn. For example, 40 pounds of silage would 
contain 5.6 pounds of corn. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 111 

7. Feed one pound of concentrates daily for every pound 
of butter fat produced per week and roughage ad libitum. 

8. Use a variety of feeds for best results. 

BEEF CATTLE 

1. In general, feed 2 J pounds of feed per 100 pounds live 
weight. 

2. For maintenance, feed roughage ad libitum. 

3. For wintering stockers, feed roughage ad libitum. 

4. In getting fattening cattle on full feed, start them out 
with 2 pounds of concentrates per day per head and rough- 
age ad libitum. Increase the concentrates one pound daily 
until they receive 10 pounds of concentrates per head, then 
increase the concentrates one pound every three days until 
they are on full-feed. 

5. For fattening cattle on full-feed, feed If to 2 pounds 
of concentrates ^ and J pound of roughage per day per 100 
pounds live weight. 

HOGS 

1. In general, feed 3 to 5 pounds of concentrates per 100 
pounds hve weight according to age, giving larger rations 
to younger and smaller rations to older hogs. 

2, For pigs at weaning time (weighing about 50 pounds), 
feed 5 ppunds of concentrates per 100 pounds hve weight, 
or 4 pounds of concentrates per day per 100 pounds live 
weight and forage ad libitum. 

^ In this connection it should be noted that many cattle feeders, especially 
outside the corn-belt, use much less concentrates and more roughage than 
prescribed by this rule. Haecker of the Minnesota Station recommends 
not more than 1 pouijd of grain per 100 pounds live weight. 



112 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

3. For shoats (weighing about 100 pounds), feed 4 to 5 
pounds of concentrates, or 3 to 4 pounds of concentrates 
per day and forage ad libitum. 

4. For fattening hogs (weighing 200 to 300 pounds), 
feed 3 pounds of concentrates daily per 100 pounds Hve 
weight. 

SHEEP 

1. For young lambs (weighing 30 to 50 pounds), feed \ 
to \ pound of concentrates per day with roughage ad libitum. 

2. For fattening lambs (weighing about 50 pounds), 
on full-feed, feed 1 pound of concentrates and IJ pounds of 
roughage per day. 

3. For fattening sheep (weighing about 100 pounds), 
feed IJ pounds of concentrates and 1 pound of roughage 
per day. 

4. For pregnant ewes (weighing about 150 pounds), 
feed roughage ad libitum until within a few weeks of lamb- 
ing, then feed J to 1 pound of concentrates per day. 

5. For ewes with suckhng lambs, feed IJ pounds of con- 
centrates per day and roughage ad libitum. 

Determining the Amount of Feed. — Accurate feeding 
usually requires either the actual weight or a careful estimate 
of the weight of the ration in order to adapt the amount of 
digestible nutrients or net energy to the actual requirements 
of the animals fed. 

In feeding large lots of animals, as in the case of fattening 
cattle, hogs, and sheep, the concentrates, at least, may be 
easily weighed by the wagon-load, or the weight may be 
estimated approximately by weighing a standard measure 
of them, such as a bushel basket. The amount of roughage 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 113 

usually may be estimated approximately, especially after 
one has had some practice. In feeding animals individually, 
as in the case of horses and dairy cows, the weight of the 
concentrates usually can be closely approximated by measur- 
ing the amounts fed. In case of a mixture of two or more 
concentrates being fed, definite quantities of each may be 
weighed and mixed in such quantity as to last for some time. 
Then the weight of a standard measure {e.g. one quart) 
may be obtained, and the amount given to each animal esti- 
mated accordingly. It is seldom practicable or necessary 
to weigh individual rations on the farm. However, it is 
well to check up the amount being fed by occasionally weigh- 
ing the ration. 

Estimating Weights of Concentrates. — Table 8 shows 
the weight of one quart, and the measure of one pound of 
the different concentrates. 

Other rules for the estimation of the amount of grain are 
as follows : 

1. One vertical inch wagon-box measure is equivalent 
to a httle more than one bushel of ear corn. 

2. One vertical inch wagon-box measure is equivalent 
to a httle more than two bushels of shelled corn, oats, 
wheat, rye, or barley. 

3. One hundred ears of corn are equivalent approximately 
to 70 pounds or one bushel. 

4. Two and one-fourth cubic feet in the crib are equivalent 
to one bushel of well-dried ear corn, or two and one-half 
cubic feet in the crib are equivalent to one bushel of sappy 
ear corn. 

5. One and one-fourth cubic feet in the crib are equivalent 
to one bushel of shelled corn or other grain. 

I 



114 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Table 8. — Average Weights of Concentrates 



Feedingstuff 



One Qt. 
Weighs 



Alfalfa meal 

Beet pulp, dried ^ . 
Buckwheat middlings . . 

Barley, whole 

Barley meal 

Brewers' dried grains . 

Coconut meal 

Cowpeas : 

Corn, whole 

Corn, meal 

Corn, bran 

Corn and cob meal . . . 
Corn and oat feed . . . . 
Cottonseed meal . . . . 
Distillers' dried grains 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Germ meal 

Hominy meal . . 
Linseed meal, old process 
Linseed meal, new process . 

Malt sprouts 

Molasses 

Oats, whole 

Oats, ground 

Rye, whole 

Rye meal 

Rye bran 

Rye middlings 

Rice polish 

Soy beans 

Skim milk 

Wheat, whole 

Wheat, ground 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings (standard) 
Wheat middlings (flour) . . 



Lb. 

0.6 
0.6 
1.3 
1.5 
1.1 
0.6 
1.5 
1.7 
1.7 
1.5 
0.5 
1.4 
0.7 
1.5 
0.6 
1.7 
1.3 
1.4 
1.1 
1.1 
0.9 
0.6 
3.0 
1.0 
0.7 
1.7 
1.5 
0.6 
1.6 
1.2 
1.8 
2.0 
2.0 
1.7 
0.5 
0.8 
1.2 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 115 

Estimating Weights of Roughages. — Although, as pre- 
viously stated, it may not be advisable in all cases to regu- 
late the amount of roughage, yet in many cases one needs to 
know approximately how much roughage will be consumed 
and how much roughage one has in order to estimate how 
many animals may be fed from the roughage on the farm. 

The weights of loose hay, straw, corn fodder, or stover are 
quite difficult to estimate with any degree of accuracy, 
although after a httle practice one may estimate approxi- 
mately the weights of small amounts. 

Woll ^ presents the following weights of different sizes 
of hay bales : 

Dimensions, incnes Weight, lb. 

Small bales. ... UexlSxSel 70 to 100 

Medium bales ... I jg x 22 X 36^ 100 to 150 

Large bales 22 X 28 X 46 150 to 225 

Ordinarily, timothy weighs a httle heavier than clover or 
alfalfa. 

The weight of hay in the mow may be estimated approxi- 
mately, especially if the mow is regular in shape so that the 
cubic content may be obtained. There are approximately 
590 cubic feet in a ton of hay when it has settled less than 
60 days. After the hay is well settled, there are approxi- 
mately 512 cubic feet in a ton. In Wyoming and Idaho, 
well settled alfalfa is figured at 512 cubic feet to the ton, and 
timothy and clover at 450 cubic feet to the ton. 

There are several rules for estimating the amount of hay 
in stacks or ricks of more or less irregular shape. The first 

1 " Productive Feeding of Farm Animals," p. 103. 



116 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

and most difl&cult step is to determine the content of 
the stack in cubic feet, and the second step is to divide 
the cubic feet in the stack by the number of cubic feet 
in a ton. 

The United States Department of Agriculture ^ proposes 
the following rule for estimating the number of cubic feet in 
a stack : 

V = FOWL 
where : 

F= volume in cubic feet. 

= distance in feet over the stack from the ground on one side 
to the ground on the other side at a point directly opposite. 

TF = width in feet of the stack at the ground. 

L = length in feet of the stack at the ground. 

F=a. fraction varying from 0.25 to 0.37, depending upon the 
shape of the stack. If the stack is low and nearly triangu- 
lar, 0.25 should be used ; if it is tall, with very full sides, 0.37 
should be used. Any number in between these two may be 
selected which seems to more nearly conform with the shape 
of the stack. 

Of course, the accuracy of this method depends upon the 
abiUty of the operator to select the proper value for '' F." 
Figure 23 shows cross sections of stacks of different shapes 
and corresponding values of '' F." 

In Wyoming and Idaho, the following formula for finding 
the cubic content of haystacks is legal : 



where : 



F= volume in cubic feet. 
= distance over the stack in feet. 
TF= width of the stack in feet. 
L = length of the stack in feet. 

1 Cir. 131, Bureau of Plant Industry. 



THE COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS 



111 












Fig. 23. — Cross sections of haystacks of different shapes showing the cor- 
responding values for " F." (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

In New Mexico the following formula is used : 

y^ OWL 



where : 



F = volume in cubic feet. 
= distance over the stack in feet. 
17= width of the stack in feet. 
L— length of the stack in feet. 



118 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Table 9, compiled from results published by the Iowa/ 
Nebraska,^ Missouri,^ and Wisconsin ^ Experiment Stations, 
shows the approximate capacities of silos of various sizes. 

Table 9. — Capacity of Round Silos 



Depth of silage 
in feet 

20 

23 

25 

28 

30 

32 

34 

36 

38 

40 

42 

44 

46 

48 

50 



10 12 



26 
32 
36 
40 
44 
50 
53 
57 
65 



Inside 
14 



38 
45 
52 
61 

68 

72 
77 
82 
94 



70 101 



51 

60 

68 

81 

90 

95 

108 

114 

128 

138 

172 



26 



diameter of silo, in feet 

16 18 20 22 24 

Expressed in tons • 

67 85 105 127 151 177 

82 103 128 154 184 216 

96 122 136 173 206 242 

108 137 160 205 245 285 

115 150 180 226 270 315 



126 
142 



162 200 248 295 346 
171 



223 269 313 — 

158 194 230 290 341 — 

167 212 261 — — — 

180 229 281 — — — 

208 246 300 — — — 

— 264 320 — — — 

— 282 340 — — — 

— 299 361 — — — 

— — 382 — — — 



One bushel of silage weighs about 40 pounds. 
1 Bui. 141. 2 Bui. 138. 3 Bui. 103. 



4 Bui. 214. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 

The Balanced Ration. — A balanced ration is a ration 
which contains all the nutrients in such proportions, forms, 
and amounts as ^vill nourish properly, and mthout excess of 
any nutrient, a given animal for one day. The proportion 
refers to the proportion of digestible protein to the digestible 
carbohydrates and fat, as indicated by the nutritive ratio. 
The form refers to the character or bulk of the ration as 
indicated by the amount of dry substance. Extended study 
of the amount of each nutrient required by the different 
farm animals for the various purposes for which they are 
kept has led to the formation of so-called " feeding 
standards." 

Feeding Standards. — Theoretically, feeding standards 
may be looked upon as formulas which tell at a glance 
the amount of each nutrient necessary to produce a given 
result. In practice, however, feeding standards cannot be 
regarded as such. In the first place, the requirements of 
farm animals for different purposes have not been deter- 
mined accurately in many cases. In the second place, the 
requirements of animals of the same species are not con- 
stant, but are influenced considerably by such factors as 
the individuahty, previous feeding, and temperament of 
the animal, temperature and other weather conditions, etc. 
Thus, no two animals have exactly the same requirement, 

119 



120 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

and they may vary considerably. If an animal is fed a 
light ration for a considerable period of time, it is probable 
that its requirements are lessened. It is a matter of com- 
mon observation that a quiet, lazy animal requires less 
feed than a nervous, energetic one, and that animals do 
better in certain kinds of weather than in other kinds. In 
the third place, there are characteristics of feeds other than 
their chemical composition and energy values which must 
be considered in formulating rations. Theoretically, one 
might satisfy the requirements of a feeding standard by 
using feeds which in actual practice would not give satis- 
factory results. In the fourth place, individual feeds often 
vary considerably from the average chemical composition and 
energy value as given for that feed in the generally accepted 
tables. Consequently, then, one must not look upon the 
feeding standard as a hard and fast rule to be followed at 
all times, but only as a guide to be adapted to varying condi- 
tions and to be used in connection with one's practical knowl- 
edge of the amounts, proportions, and combinations of 
feeds which are used in stockfeeding. Although a knowl- 
edge of feeding standards is not essential to being a suc- 
cessful feeder of live stock, yet such a knowledge enables the 
inexperienced stockfeeder to learn the art more quickly, at 
less expense, and more thoroughly than when he depends 
upon experience as his only teacher. There have been a 
large number of feeding standards proposed, all of them 
having more or less value. The most important of these 
will be taken up and discussed. 

The Wolff-Lehmann Standard. — Probably the best 
known and most widely used standards, at least until re- 
cently, are the Wolff-Lehmann standards given in Table 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 121 

32 of the Appendix. These standards cover the require- 
ments of practically all classes of farm animals under different 
conditions. They were presented first by Wolff, a noted 
German student of animal nutrition, in 1864. In 1896, 
they were revised by Lehmann, and since have been called 
the Wolff-Lehmann standards, or sometimes the ^' German 
standards." The latter term, however, is somewhat mis- 
leading as other standards also have been presented by 
German investigators in animal nutrition. 

The Wolff-Lehmann standards attempt to show the 
requirements of farm animals under different conditions 
expressed in pounds of total dry substance, digestible crude 
protein, digestible carbohydrates, and digestible fat per 
1000 pounds live weight. The nutritive ratio required 
by the animal is given also. 

The formulation of a ration^ according to any feeding 
standard, consists essentially of three steps. (1) Having 
given the requirements for an animal of a given weight, 
usually 1000 pounds, the requirements of the animal under 
consideration are determined. (2) A ^' trial ration " is 
assumed, using the amounts and proportions of concentrates 
and roughages which, in the opinion of the feeder, are satis- 
factory. (3) The trial ration is modified by adding or 
deducting concentrates or roughages of such composition 
as to furnish approximately the required amounts of dry 
substance, digestible protein, digestible carbohydrates, di- 
gestible fat, and net energy, and the proper nutritive ratio. 

Thus, for example, one calculates a ration according to the 
Wolff-Lehmann standard for a 1200-pound horse at fight 
work as follows : According to the standard (Table 32, 
Appendix), the requirements of a 1000-pound horse at fight 



122 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



work are as follows : dry substance, 20 pounds ; digestible 
protein, 1.5 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 9.5 pounds; 
and digestible fat, 0.4 pounds. The ration should have a 
nutritive ratio of 1 : 7.0. The first step is to calculate the 
requirements of a 1200-pound horse, which are found to be 
as follows : dry substance, 24 pounds ; digestible protein, 
1.8 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 11.4 pounds; and 
digestible fat, 0.5 pound. The second step is to assume a 
trial ration which will meet approximately the requirements 
as determined in the first step. From the amount of dry 
substance required and from practical experience (see rule 
5, page 109), one judges that a ration consisting of 12 pounds 
of oats and 14 pounds of timothy hay will not be far amiss. 
Calculating the dry substance and digestible nutrients of 
this ration from Table 29 of the Appendix, the following 
results are obtained : 





Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Oats, 12 lb. ... 
Hay, 14 lb. ... 


Lh. 

10.8 
12.2 


Lh. 
1.1 

.0.4 


Lb. 

5.9 
5.9 


Lh. 
0.5 

0.2 


Total ration . . 


23.0 


1.5 


11.8 


0.7 





Comparing the nutrients of the trial ration with the re- 
quirements of the standard, it is seen that the trial ration 
is a little below the standard in dry substance and protein, 
and a little above it in carbohydrates and fat. Thus the 
third step is to modify the trial ration so that its nutrients 
conform to the standard. Consequently, a feed which is 
high in protein and low in carbohydrates should be sub- 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 123 



stituted for part of the ration. Inasmuch as it is not de- 
sirable to lessen the bulk of the ration, one may substitute 
two pounds of linseed meal for two pounds of the oats of the 
ration. The ration then contains the following nutrients : 





Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Oats, 10 lb . . . . 
Linseed meal 2 lb. . 
Timothy hay, 14 lb. 


Lh. 

9.0 

1.8 

12.2 


Lh. 

0.9 
0.6 
0.4 


Lh. 

4.9 
0.6 
5.9 


Lb. 

0.4 
0.1 
0.2 


Total ration . 


23.0 


1.9 


11.4 


0.7 



The nutritive ratio is 



11.4 + (2.25X0.7) 
1.9 



or 1 : 6.8 



This ration, except being a trifle low in dry substance, comes 
very close to satisfying the standard. Of course, in many 
cases, especially until one has had considerable practice in 
the calculation of rations, the trial ration may have to be 
modified several times before the ration conforms with the 
standard. However, by applying his practical knowledge 
and the rules in Chapter VII, the student should not have 
much difficulty in calculating balanced rations. 

Other rations are calculated according to the Wolff- 
Lehmann standard in the same general manner. It should 
be borne in mind, however, that as previously mentioned, 
other factors, such as the proportion of concentrates to 
roughages, the general practicabihty, and the cost of the 
ration, as well as its content of digestible nutrients also must 
be taken into consideration. 

In view of modern investigation, certain modifications 



124 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

must be made to the Wolff-Lehmann standards to adapt 
them to American conditions. In practically every instance 
the amount of dry substance prescribed is 10 to 20 per cent 
too high. The protein prescribed is from 10 to 40 per cent 
too high, the greatest difference being in the cases of fatten- 
ing and working animals and, consequently, the nutritive 
ratio is too narrow. This is due to the fact that the early 
students of animal nutrition thought that fattening and work 
were produced largely or entirely at the expense of the pro- 
tein of the ration. This of course makes the Wolff-Lehmann 
standard for these classes of animals less valuable. But 
little attention should be given to the fat content of the 
ration, it being considered satisfactory if the requirements 
for protein and carbohydrates are fulfilled. 

Henry and Morrison ^ have recently suggested modifica- 
tions of the Wolff-Lehmann standards for dairy cows, beef 
cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs. These standards attempt 
to correct the objections to the original Wolff-Lehmann 
standards, and their use is recommended in preference to 
the older standards. The Henry-Morrison standards are 
given in Table 33 of the Appendix. 

The Armsby Standard. — Perhaps the simplest and among 
the most accurate standards for the maintenance, growth, 
and fattening of cattle and sheep are those presented by 
Armsby of the Pennsylvania Station.^ A modification of 
his standard for dairy cows is presented by Van Norman.^ 
These standards are based principally upon the work of 
Armsby in this country and upon that of Kellner in Germany. 
They are given in Table 34 of the Appendix. 

1 "Feeds and Feeding," pp. 134 and 669. 

2 U. S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bui. 346. 

3 Penn. Exp. Sta. Bui. 114. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 125 

The Armsby standards express the requirements of farm 
animals in pounds of digestible true protein (not crude pro- 
tein) and in therms of net energy. Instead of giving separate 
standards for all the different classes of farm animals, Armsby 
gives standards for maintenance and for growth. Inasmuch 
as any excess of feed above maintenance may be used for 
fattening or milk production, he gives the amount of nu- 
trients above the maintenance requirements necessary to 
produce a pound of gain or a pound of milk. Thus, the 
standards for fattening and for milk production vary with 
the amount of gain or with the amount of milk produced. To 
determine the standard for a fattening animal, one adds 3.5 
therms for each pound of daily gain to the energy require- 
ment for maintenance, as all the net energy above the 
maintenance requirement may be used for the production 
of flesh and fat. The protein requirement of an immature 
fattening animal is, according to Armsby, the same as that 
of a growing animal of the same weight, and the protein 
requirement of a mature fattening animal is the same as 
the protein requirement for maintenance. Armsby recom- 
mends that a 1000-pound ruminant should receive 20 to 
30 pounds, or an average of 25 pounds, of dry substance per 
day. A horse should have somewhat less. The amounts 
of digestible true protein and of net energy in the common 
feedingstuffs as presented by Armsby are given in Table 31 
of the Appendix. For example, if one desires to calculate 
a ration for a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day, 
the first step is to determine the requirements. From Table 
34 of the Appendix, it is seen that the requirements of a 
1000-pound steer gaining 2 pounds per day are 1.8 pounds of 
digestible protein and 13.0 therms of net energy. As the 



126 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



second step, we will assume a trial ration consisting of 10 
pounds of corn and 8 pounds of clover hay. Referring to 
Table 31 of the Appendix, it is found that the digestible 
protein and net energy in this ration are as follows : 





Dry 

Substance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


Corn, 10 lb 

Clover hay, 8 lb 


Lb. 

8.91 
6.78 


Lb. 
0.68 

0.43 


Therms 
8.88 
2.78 


Total ration 


15.69 


1.11 


11.66 



Comparing the trial ration with the standard, we find that 
it is low in both protein and energy. As the third step, we 
will add 2 pounds of cottonseed meal, as it is high in both 
protein and energy. The ration then contains the following 
nutrients : 





Dry 

Substance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


Corn, 10 lb 

Clover hay, 8 lb 

Cottonseed meal, 2 lb. . . 


Lb. 

8.91 
6.78 
1.84 


Lb. 
0.68 

0.43 
0.70 


Therms 
8.88 

2.78 
1.68 


Total ration . . . . . 


17.53 


1.81 


13.34 



This ration, although a trifle low in dry substance, ful- 
fills the requirements of the Armsby standard. 

In calculating a ration for a dairy cow according to the 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 127 

Armsby standard, one adds to the requirements for mainte- 
nance, 0.05 pound of digestible protein and 0.3 therm of net 
energy for each pound of 4 per cent milk produced. For 
example, one wishes to calculate a ration for a 900-pound 
cow giving 22 pounds of approximately 4 per cent milk. 
According to Table 34 of the Appendix, the requirement is 
as follows : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


For maintenance of 900-lb. cow 
Addition for 22 lb. of milk 


Lb. 

0.45 
1.10 


Therms 

5.7 
6.6 


Total requirement 


1.55 


12.3 



As a trial ration, we will assume 3 pounds of ground corn, 
40 pounds of corn silage, and 15 pounds of clover hay. 
This ration contains the following nutrients : 



% 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


Ground corn, 3 lb. ... 

Corn silage. 40 lb. 

Clover hay, 15 lb. ... 


Lb. 

2.7 
10.2 
12.7 


Lb. 

0.20 
0.48 
0.81 


Therms 

2.7 
6.6 
5.2 


Total ration .... 


25.6 


1.49 


14.5 



Obviously this ration is too high in dry substance and energy. 
Consequently, 10 pounds of silage are deducted from the 
ration, which then has the following composition: 



128 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 





Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


Corn silage, 30 lb. ... 
Clover hay, 15 lb. ... 
Ground corn, 3 lb. 


7.6 
12.7 

2.7 


Lb. 

0.36 
0.81 
0.20 


Therms 

4.9 
5.2 

2.7 


Total ration .... 


23.0 


1.37 


12.8 



This ration is low in protein but about right in energy. 
Consequently, a pound of linseed meal is substituted for a 
pound of the ground corn, as the linseed meal contains con- 
siderably more protein and about the same amount of energy 
as corn. The ration is as follows : 





Dry 

Substance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


Corn silage, 30 lb 

Clover hay, 15 lb 

Linseed meal, 1 lb 

Ground corn, 2 lb 


Lb. 

7.6 

12.7 

0.9 

1.8 


Lb. 

0.36 
0.81 
0.28 
0.13 


Therms 

4.9 
5.2 
0.8 
1.8 


Total ration 


23.0 


1.58 


12.7 



This ration satisfactorily fulfills the Armsby standard. 

Van Norman ^ has proposed a modification of the Armsby 
standard for dairy cows by taking into account the quality 
as well as the quantity of the milk. For every variation of 
0.1 per cent from a standard fat content of 4 per cent, the 
amount of digestible protein is increased or decreased, as 
the case may be, 0.0005 lb., and the energy, 0.008 therm. 



Penn. Exp. Sta. Bui. 114, 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 129 



Thus one calculates the requirements for a 1250 pound cow 
giving 40 pounds of 3.5 per cent milk as follows : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Net 
Energy 


To produce 1 lb. of 4 per cent milk .... 
Deduct for decrease of 0.5 per cent in fat 


Lb. 

0.0500 
0.0025 


Therms 

0.30 
0.04 


To produce 1 lb. of 3.5 per cent milk . . . 


0.0475 


0.26 


To produce 40 lb. of 3.5 per cent milk . . . 
To maintain a 1250-lb. cow 


1.9 
0.6 


10.4 
7.0 


Total requirement 


2.5 


17.4 









The ration is then formulated in the usual manner. 

Other Standards. — Inasmuch as a considerable number 
of feeding standards have been proposed, and as a number 
of investigations upon the requirements of farm animals for 
different purposes have been reported recently, it may be of 
value to discuss some of them. 

Requirements for Maintenance. — A maintenance ration 
is one just sufficient to prevent any loss or gain of tissues 
in the animal body when there is no production. Theoreti- 
cally a maintenance ration supplies just enough digestible pro- 
tein to furnish the necessary amino acids for the repair of 
the protein tissues of the body, and just enough net energy 
to carry W the vital processes. It supplies the quantity of 
feed necessary to simply support the animal when doing no 
work and when yielding no material product. Although in 
practical feeding simple maintenance is usually (though not 
always) avoided, nevertheless a knowledge of the mainte- 
nance requirement is necessary in order to use many of the 

K 



130 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



feeding standards, especially those for fattening animals 
and those for milk production. Considerable work has been 
done upon the maintenance requirement of cattle, while 
but little has been done upon that of other farm animals. 
After a careful study of the experiments upon this subject, 
it seems that the averages given in Table 10 represent the 
maintenance requirement of the farm animals with a fair 
degree of accuracy. 

Table 10. — Maintenance Requirements of Farm Animals 





Live 

Weight 


Diges- 
tible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Diges- 
tible 

Fat 


Total 
Nutri- 
ment^ 


Net 
Energy 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lh. 


Therms 


Cattle . . . 


1000 


0.6 


7.0 


0.1 


8.0 


6.5 


Horses . 


1000 


0.6 


— 


— 


— 


7.0 


Sheep . . . 


100 


0.07 


— 


— 


— 


0.9 


Hogs . . . 


100 


0.08 


0.3 to 0.4 


0.3 


0.54 


1.2 



Requirements for Growth. — Growth consists of an in- 
crease in the size of the muscles, bones, organs, etc., of the 
body. Thus growth is essentially an increase in the amount 
of protein tissue of the body, although some fat will also 
be formed, the amount depending upon the amount and 
nature of the ration. The principal sources of the protein 
tissue are the protein and mineral matter of the feed. The 
rate of growth in the young animal is quite high, but de- 
creases as the animal becomes older. In the mature animal 
practically all growth is confined to the skin, hair, hoofs, 
and horns. Consequently, the younger an animal is the 

1 Digestible protein plus digestible carbohydrates plus 2.25 times digest- 
ible fat. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 131 

more protein there should be in the ration, the amount de- 
creasing with the age of the animal until it reaches maturity. 
Thus especial attention should be given to the protein con- 
tent of the rations of all growing animals, remembering that 
it is better to feed a little too much protein than not enough. 
In addition to the quantity of protein, the quality of the 
protein should also be considered, in order to make sure that 
the ration is not deficient in any of the essential amino acids. 

If the animals are to be used for meat or work, especial 
emphasis need not be laid upon the carbohydrates and fat 
or energy content of the growing ration, so long as it is 
sufficient. However, if they are to be used for breeding pur- 
poses, care should be taken to hmit the amounts of carbohy- 
drates and fat of the ration, or the animals may become so 
fat as to produce barrenness. This is often the case with 
show animals which have become too fat. 

Mineral matter, especially calcium and phosphorus, is 
absolutely essential to the proper development of the growing 
animal. Ordinarily, except sometimes in the case of pigs, 
a properly balanced ration will contain sufficient phosphorus, 
as most of the nitrogenous feeds are high in phosphorus. 
If a legume hay is fed, there probably will be sufficient 
calcium in the ration. Other^vise additional calcium or 
phosphorus must be suppUed by adding feeds which are rich 
in these elements. In case of pigs, it is usually considered 
good practice to allow them free access to a mineral mixture. 
(See page 79). 

Haecker, at the Minnesota Experiment Station, ^ after 
many years of experimentation, proposes the following table 
as expressing the requirements of growing fattening cattle. 

- ^ Unpublished data. 



132 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Table 11. — Haecker's Standard for Growing Fattening 

Cattle 

Dry substance and digestible nutrients daily per 1000 lb. live weight 



Live 


Total Dry 


Digestible 


Digestible 


Digestible 


Weight 


Substance 


Crude Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Lh. 


U. 


Lh. 


U. 


Lh. 


100 


12.8 


2.90 


5.5] 


3.00 


200 


21.8 


3.05 


11.6 


0.55 


300 


24.2 


2.43 


12.4 


0.63 


400 


22.1 


1.97 


11.1 


0.60 


500 


21.7 


1.90 


11.1 


0.60 


600 


21.1 


1.85 


10.8 


0.60 


700 


20.5 


1.81 


10.4 


0.54 


800 


19.5 


1.80 


10.0 


0.52 


900 


18.4 


1.80 


9.4 


0.50 


1000 


17.9 


1.64 


9.5 


0.48 


1100 


16.5 


1.43 


9.1 


0.44 


1200 


15.7 


1.40 


8.8 


0.46 



This standard supplies less protein and other nutrients 
than the Henry-Morrison, the Wolff-Lehmann and the 
Armsby standards for growing cattle. Experiments at the 
Illinois Experiment Station ^ by Mumford, Grindley, Hall, 
Emmett, Bull and Allison, show that two-year old steers 
may be successfully fattened on less protein than provided 
by the Haecker standard. 

Investigations at the Illinois Experiment Station by Bull 
and Emmett indicate that the Wolff-Lehmann and Armsby 
standards for growing lambs are too high in protein. The 
standard for protein given in Table 12 is recommended by 
them.2 

1 Unpublished data. 

2 lU. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 166. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 133 



Table 12. Protein Requirements of Growing Lambs 
(Bull and Emmett) 



Weight of Lamb 


Digestible Crude Protein 
PER 100 Pounds 


Lb. 

50- 70 

70- 90 

90-100 

110-150 


Lh. 

0.32 
0.27 
0.23 
0.17 



The Wolff-Lehmann standard for carbohydrates and fat, 
and the Armsby standard for energy may be accepted as 
approximately correct. 

Dietrich/ formerly of the IlHnois Experiment Station, 
suggests the standard given in Table 13 for growing pigs 
which are to be used for breeding purposes. 

Table 13. — Requirements of Growing Hogs (Dietrich) 



Age op Pigs 


Digestible Protein 
PER 100 Lb. 
Live Weight 


Digestible Carbohy- 
drates PER 100 Lb. 
Live Weight 


8 weeks 

15 weeks ....... 

19 weeks 

26 weeks 

30 weeks 

38 weeks 

2 years 


Lh. 

0.50 
0.55 
0.45 
0.50 
0.35 
0.40 
0.20 


Lh. 

2.2 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 
2.4 



The Henry-Morrison standards in Table 33 of the Appendix 
are quite valuable. In calculating rations for hogs, it is 

1 m. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 126, 133, and 153. 



134 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

recommended that Table 30 of the Appendix be used as 
representing the digestible nutrients in the feeds. 

Savage and Henry and Morrison have presented standards 
for growing horses. The Henry-Morrison standard is 
given in Table 33 of the Appendix. According to Savage ^ 
growing horses from 6 months to 2J years of age should receive 
18 pounds of dry substance, 1.7 pounds of digestible protein, 
and 12.0 pounds of total nutriment per 1000 pounds Uve 
weight. The ration should have a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6.1. 

Requirements for Pregnant Animals. — The development 
of the foetus in the dam requires protein and mineral matter. 
Hence the ration of the mature pregnant animal should con- 
tain protein and mineral matter in addition to the mainte- 
nance requirements. In case of a young pregnant animal, 
which is still growing, additional protein and mineral matter 
above the ordinary requirements must be supplied or the 
foetus will be only imperfectly developed at the expense 
of the tissues of the dam. If the pregnant animal is pro- 
ducing milk, or is working, in addition to carrying a foetus, 
additional energy as well as protein and mineral matter 
should be supplied. For example, a mare which is bred, is 
suckling a foal, and is doing ordinary farm work should have 
a ration containing more protein and energy than the mare 
or gelding which is working only. 

Requirements for mature breeding ewes, mature brood 
sows, and mature brood mares doing no work are given by 
the Wolff-Lehmann and Henry-Morrison standards. In 
feeding breeding animals care should be taken not to get 
them too fat, as this often produces barrenness in the female 
and sterihty in the male. 

1 Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 321. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 135 

Requirements for Fattening. — Fattening consists of a 
storage of animal fat in the cells of the various tissues of the 
body, especially in the tissues of the abdominal cavity and in 
the connective tissues just under the skin and between the 
muscles. 

In the practical feeding of animals intended for meat 
production it is difficult and unnecessary to draw any sharp 
line between growth and fattening, especially in view of 
the increasing tendency to fatten and market cattle and 
hogs before they are mature. It is sufficient to say that 
if the ration contains a surplus of nutrients above the re- 
quirements of the animal for maintenance and growth, the 
surplus up to a certain limit may be used for the production 
of fat. 

We have learned that the principal sources of body fat 
are the carbohydrates and fat of the feed, although any 
surplus of protein in the ration may serve also for the pro- 
duction of fat. Consequently, in feeding fattening animals, 
the amount of protein in the ration is of major importance, 
while the amount of carbohydrates and fat or of energy is 
of minor importance, as long as enough of them is supphed. 
Inasmuch as the most rapid fattening is usually the cheapest 
fattening, a practical method of formulating the rations of 
fattening animals is to fulfill the protein requirement and 
then give them all the carbohydrates and fat they will 
consume. 

The idea of the amount of protein required for fattening 
has undergone considerable modification within the last 
few years. The idea of the older investigators in animal 
nutrition regarding the production of body fat was that the 
protein of the feed was its sole source. Consequently, the 



136 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

amounts of protein supplied by some of the older feeding 
standards, such as the Wolff-Lehmann, are greatly exag- 
gerated. The results of more modern investigations indicate 
that, in the case of immature animals, no more protein is re- 
quired for fattening than for growth. Hence, no more protein 
is recommended for immature fattening animals than for grow- 
ing animals. But little more protein is required for fattening 
mature animals than for the maintenance of such animals, 
provided the excess of carbohydrates does not cause a de- 
crease in the digestibihty of the ration. It has already 
been explained that if the nutritive ratio of the ration is 
wider than 1 to 10 or 12, the digestibihty will be decreased. 

For fattening immature cattle no more protein is recom- 
mended than is supplied by the standards for growing cattle. 
The Henry-Morrison and the Haecker standards for growing, 
fattening steers are probably not far from the truth. In- 
vestigations with fattening mature cattle indicate that 1.0 
lb. of digestible crude protein per 1000 pounds live weight 
is sufficient. 

For the energy, carbohydrate, and fat requirements of 
fattening cattle, we can do no better than recommend 
the Armsby, Wolff-Lehmann, Henry-Morrison, or Haecker 
standards. 

Late experiments indicate that 0.15 pound or even less 
of digestible crude protein per 100 pounds five weight is 
sufficient for mature fattening sheep. For fattening lambs. 
Bull and Emmett ^ recommend the same standard for 
protein as given in Table 12 for growing lambs. From 1.8 
to 2.0 therms of net energy per 100 pounds five weight should 
be sufficient for fattening. 

1 lU. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 166. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 137 

Dietrich ^ recommends the standard for fattening market 
hogs given in Table 14. 

Table 14. — Requirements op Fattening Hogs (Dietrich) 



Age op Hogs 


Digestible Protein per 
100 Lb. Live Weight 


Weeks 


Lh. 


8 


0.60 


15 


0.70 


19 


0.60 


26 


0.65 


30 


0.30 



According to Dietrich they should have 2.4 lb. of digestible 
carbohydrates per 100 pounds live weight at the beginning 
of the feeding period. This amount is increased gradually to 
2.8 pounds. After this they are kept just below full-feed. A 
little more fat than is found in the ordinary farm rations is 
recommended by Dietrich. 

As in the case of fattening cattle and sheep, the protein 
requirements of the Wolff-Lehmann standard for fattening 
hogs are too high. Their protein requirement for growing 
breeding stock, and the amounts of carbohydrates and fat 
as prescribed by their standard for growing and fattening 
hogs probably represent approximately the requirements of 
fattening hogs. The Henry-Morrison standards for fatten- 
ing pigs^ also are quite valuable. 

Requirements for Work. — The idea of the early investiga- 
tors in animal nutrition was that the protein was the source 
of muscular work, consequently the old standards, such as 
the Wolff-Lehmann, are too high in this nutrient. Inasmuch 

1 lU. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 126, 133, and 153. 



138 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



as work is done at the expense of the carbohydrates and fats 
of the ration, theoretically the amount of protein supphed 
for the maintenance of a horse should be sufficient for the 
same horse when doing work, as work is done primarily 
at the expense of the carbohydrates and fat of the feed, the 
protein not being drawn upon as long as the other nutrients 
are present in sufficient amounts. However, in actual 
practice, usually it is desirable to feed more protein than the 
maintenance requirement, because, as we have already seen, 
a ration mth a very ^\^de nutritive ratio is not as thoroughly 
digested as one containing more protein. Kellner states 
that a nutritive ratio of 1 : 8 or 1 : 10 is sufficient to prevent 
any decrease in the digestibility of the ration. 

The requirements for mature Avork horses are given in 
the Wolff-Lehmann, the Henry-Morrison, and the Kellner 
standards. For convenience, we have followed the custom 
of Armsbj^ and expressed the Kellner standard in terms of 
digestible protein and net energy. The Kellner standard 
for a 1000-lb. horse, thus expressed, is given in Table 15. 

Table 15. — Requirements of Work Horses (Kellner) 



Total Dry 
Substance 



Digestible 
Protein 



Net 
Energy 



Light work . 
Medium work 
Heavy work . 



Lb. 

18-23 
21-26 
23-28 



Lb. 

1.2 
1.6 
2.2 



Therms 

9.8 
12.4 
16.0 



Any of these standards should be valuable. 

It should be borne in mind that, on account of his limited 
digestive capaci j-y, the horse, especially when doing hard 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 139 

work, can handle but a relatively small amount of roughage. 
Hence, the greater part of the energy should be furnished 
in the form of concentrates. 

Horses which have not com_pleted their growth and horses 
which have a large amount of work to do in a short time, as 
racing and driving horses, should have larger amounts of 
protein than those prescribed. 

Requirements for Milk Production. — The average chemi- 
cal composition of milk is as follows: water, 87.1 per cent; 
ash, 0.7 per cent ; protein, 3.2 per cent ; fat, 3.9 per cent ; and 
carboh3Tlrates (milk sugar), 5.1 per cent. As the animal 
organism does not have the power to construct protein from 
carbohydrates and fats, the protein of the feed is the sole 
source of the milk protein. However, the fat of the feed 
is not the sole source of the milk fat, as cows may produce 
normal amounts of butter fat on a ration containing only 
traces of fat. It is probable that the carbohydrates, fats, 
and any surplus of protein in the feed may all be used for 
the production of milk sugar and butter fat, although their 
principal source is the carbohydrates of the feed. 

In formulating a standard for milk production, not only 
the weight of the cow but the quantity and quahty of the 
milk should be taken into consideration. The requirement 
for maintenance of course depends upon the size of the cow, 
while the requirement above maintenance varies with the 
amount "and richness of the milk, i.e. the percentage of fat 
which it contains. 

The requirements for dairy cattle have been determined 
more accurately than those of any other class of animals. 
Among the more recent investigators who have studied the 
requirements for. milk production are Armsby and Van Nor- 



140 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



man, whose standards have been discussed, Haecker, Savage, 
Woll and Humphrey, and Eckles. 

The Haecker standard for dairy cows has been developed 
by Haecker of the Minnesota Experiment Station ^ during 
many years of experimentation. He holds that the feed 
requirements of the dairy cow vary not only according to 
her weight and the quantity of the milk yield, but also ac- 
cording to the quality of the milk. 

According to Haecker, a 1000-pound cow requires for 
maintenance 0.7 lb. of digestible crude protein, 7.0 lb. of 
digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb, of digestible fat. For 
each pound of 4 per cent milk the Haecker standard requires 
the addition of 0.054 lb. of digestible crude protein, 0.24 
lb. of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.021 lb. of digestible 
fat in addition to the maintenance requirement. If the 
milk contains less than 4.0 per cent of fat, smaller amounts 
of nutrients are prescribed, while if the milk contains more 
than 4.0 per cent fat, larger amounts of nutrients are pre- 
scribed. The amounts of digestible nutrients to produce 
one pound of milk containing various percentages of butter 
fat are given in Table 16. 

Table 16. — Haecker's Standard for Milk Production 



Fat in Milk 


Protein 


Carbohydrates 


Fat 


Per Cent 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


2.5 


0.0446 


0.176 


0.0151 


2.6 


.0451 


.180 


.0155 


2.7 


.0455 


.185 


.0159 


2.8 


.0460 


.190 


.0163 


2.9 


.0464 


.194 


.0166 


3.0 


.0469 


.199 


.0170 


3.1 


.0474 


.203 


.0174 



1 Bui. 130, 140. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS l4l 

Table 16. — Haecker's Standard for Milk Production 

{Continued) 



Fat in Milk 


Protein 


Cars oh ydr ates 


Fat 


Per Cent 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


3.2 


.0478 


.207 


.0178 


3.3 


.0483 


.212 


.0181 


3.4 


.0486 


.216 


.0185 


3.5 


.0492 


.221 


.0189 


3.6 


.0501 


.225 


.0193 


3.7 


.0511 


.220 


.0196 


3.8 


.0520 


.234 


.0200 


3.9 


.0530 


.238 


.0204 


4.0 


.0539 


.242 


.0208 


4.1 


.0546 


.247 


.0211 


4.2 


.0553 


.251 


.0215 


4.3 


.0558 


.255 


.0218 


4.4 


.0565 


.260 


.0222 


4.5 


.0572 


.264 


.0226 


4.6 


.0579 


.268 


.0230 


4.7 


.0584 


.272 


.0233 


4.8 


.0591 


.276 


.0236 


4.9 


.0597 


.280 


.0240 


5.0 


.0604 


.284 


.0243 


5.1 


.0611 


.288 


.0247 


5.2 


.0618 


.291 


.0250 


5.3 


.0625 


.295 


.0253 


5.4 


.0632 


.299 


.0256 


5.5 


.0639 


.302 


.0259 


5.6 


.0644 


.307 


.0263 


5.7 


.0651 


.310 


.0266 


5.8 


.0656 


.314 


.0269 


5.9 


.0663 


.318 


.0273 


6.0 


.0668 


.322 


.0276 


6.1 


.0679 


.326 


.0279 


6.2 -^ 


.0689 


.330 


.0283 


6.3 


.0700 


.334 


.0286 


6.4 


.0710 


.338 


.0289 


6.5 


.0721 


.342 


.0293 


6.6 


.0724 


.345 


.0296 


6.7 


.0728 


.349 


.0299 


6.8 


.0731 


.353 


.0302 


6.9 


.0735 


.357 


.0305 


7.0 


• .0738 


.359 


.0308 



142 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



For example, to calculate a ration according to the Haecker 
standard for a 900-pound cow, giving 20 pounds of milk 
daily containing 5 per cent of butter fat, the process is as 
follows : (1) determine the maintenance requirement for a 
900-pound cow ; (2) add to the maintenance requirement the 
requirement to produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk; and 
(3) calculate a ration to conform with this standard. Thus 
a cow weighing 900 pounds requires 0.63 lb. of digestible 
protein, 6.30 lb. of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.09 lb. 
of digestible fat for maintenance. According to Haecker, 
to produce one pound of 5 per cent milk requires the con- 
sumption of 0.060 lb. of digestible crude protein, 0.28 lb. 
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.024 lb. of digestible fat, 
in addition to the maintenance requirement. Thus the 
total requirement to produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk 
is calculated as follows : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


For maintenance 

To produce 20 lb. of 5 per cent milk 


Lb. 

0.63 
1.22 


Lb. 

6.30 
5.60 


Lb. 

0.09 
0.50 


Total 


1.85 


11.90 


0.59 



The ration is then calculated in the same manner as de- 
scribed under the discussion of the Wolff -Lehmann standards. 
The Savage Standard for Dairy Cows. — Savage, at the 
Cornell University Experiment Station,^ after extensive 
experiments, suggests the following standard for the mainte- 

1 Bui. 322 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 143 

nance of a 1000-pound cow: digestible protein, 0.7 lb., and 
total nutriment {i.e. digestible protein plus digestible car- 
bohydrates plus 2.25 times digestible fat), 7.925 lb. To 
produce 1 pound of milk of varying degrees of richness, he 
suggests the addition of digestible protein and total nutri- 
ment as given in Table 17. 

Table 17. — Savage's Standard for Milk Production 



Fat in Milk 


Digestible Protein 


Total Nutriment 


Per Cent 


Lh. 


Lb. 


2.5 


0.0527 


0.2574 


2.6 


.0535 


.2629 


2.7 


.0543 


.2685 


2.8 


.0551 


• .2743 


2.9 


.0559 


.2812 


3.0 


.0567 


.2870 


3.1 


.0575 


.2928 


3.2 


.0583 


.2987 


3.3 


.0591 


.3055 


3.4 


.0599 


.3115 


3.5 


.0608 


.3185 


3.6 


.0616 


.3243 


3.7 


.0624 


.3312 


3.8 


.0632 


.3369 


3.9 


.0640 


.3428 


4.0 


.0648 


.3497 


4.1 


.0656 


.3555 


4.2 


.0664 


.3612 


4.3 


.0672 


.3671 


4.4 


.0680 


.3729 


-4.5 


.0689 


.3787 


4.6 


.0697 


.3842 


4.7 


.0705 


.3890 


4.8 


.0713 


.3945 


4.9 


.0721 


.3992 


5.0 


.0729 


.4048 


5.1 


.0737 


.4105 


5.2 


.0745 


.4150 



144 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Table 17. — Savage's Standard for Milk Production 

{Continued) 



Fat in Milk 


Digestible Protein 


Total Nutriment 


Per Cent 


Lh. 


Lh. 


5.3 


.0753 


.4209 


5.4 


.0761 


.4253 


5.5 


.0770 


.4311 


5.6 . 


.0778 


.4355 


5.7 


.0786 


.4413 


5.8 


.0794 


.4469 


5.9 


.0802 


.4517 


6.0 


.0810 


.4572 


6.1 


.0818 


.4619 


6.2 


.0826 


.4676 


6.3 


.0834 


.4721 


.6.4 


.0842 


.4791 


6.5 


.0851 


.4835 


6.6 


.0859 


.4882 


6.7 


.0867 


.4926 


6.8 


.0875 


.4984 


6.9 


.0883 


.5040 


7.0 


.0891 


.5075 



Concerning this standard, Savage makes the following 
statement : " The writer would further recommend that a 
cow be fed according to this standard when her condition has 
become normal after calving. Then the grain ration should 
be increased 1 pound per day and the cow watched closely 
for one week, a careful record being kept of her milk and fat 
production. If, at the end of the week, the cow's health is good 
and she has increased in fat or milk production sufficiently to 
pay for the increase in feed, another pound per day should 
be added to the grain ration as before, and so on until the 
cow is getting all the feed she will eat up clean, if she shows 
in her product that she will pay for the increase each time." 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 145 

Thus the requirements of a cow weighing 1100 pounds 
and producing 35 pounds of 3.2 per cent milk are as follows : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Total 

Nutriment 


For maintenance 

For 35 lb. of 3.2 per cent milk . . 


Lb. 

0.7700 
2.0405 


Lb. 
8.7175 

10.4545 


Total 


2.8105 


19.1720 



The ration is then calculated in the usual manner, keeping 
in mind that the total nutriment is obtained by multipl3dng 
the fat by 2.25, and adding to it the protein and carbohy- 
drates. 

The Woll and Humphrey Standard for Dairy Cows. — 
WoU and Humphrey, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station,^ 
have presented a standard for dairy cows based upon the live 
weight of the cow and the amount of butter fat produced 
daily. Their standard is given in Table 18. 

Thus to determine the requirements of a 900-pound cow 
giving 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk daily, one first determines 
the amount of butter fat produced daily, which in this case 
is 1.0 pound. From Table 18, it is seen that a 900-pound 
cow producing 1.0 pound of butter should have 22.4 pounds 
of dry substance, 2.04 pounds of digestible protein, and 15.0 
pounds of total digestible substance (digestible protein + 
digestible carbohydrates + digestible fat). The ration is 
then calculated in the usual manner. 



Research Bui. 13. 



146 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Table 18. — Woll and Humphrey's Standard for Dairy Cows 



Live 


Production of Butter Fat per Day, Pounds 


weight 


Dry 

cows 


O.n-0.5 
Lb. 


0.5-0.75 
Lb. 


0.75-1.0 
Lb. 


1.0-1.25 
Lb. 


1.25-1.5 
Lb. 


1.5-1.75 
Lb. 


1.75-2.0 
Lb. 



TOTAL DRY SUBSTANCE REQUIRED, POUNDS 



800 


10.0 


13.7 


16.2 


18.6 


21.1 


23.5 


26.0 


28.4 


900 


11.3 


15.0 


17.5 


19.9 


22.4 


24.8 


27.3 


29.7 


1000 


12.5 


16.2 


18.7 


21.1 


23.6 


26.0 


28.5 


30.9 


1100 


13.8 


17.5 


20.0 


22.4 


24.9 


27.3 


29.8 


32.2 


1200 


15.0 


18.7 


21.2 


23.6 


26.1 


28.5 


31.0 


33.4 


1300 


16.3 


20.0 


22.5 


24.9 


27.4 


29.8 


32.3 


34.7 


1400 


17.5 


21.2 


23.7 


26.1 


28.6 


31.0 


33.5 


35.9 


1500 


18.8 


22.5 


25.0 


27.4 


29.9 


32.8 


34.7 


37.2 



DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN REQUIRED, POUNDS 



800 


0.56 


1.04 


1.35 


1.66 


1.97 


2.29 


2.60 


2.91 


900 


.63 


1.11 


1.42 


1.73 


2.04 


2.36 


2.67 


2.98 


1000 


.70 


1.18 


1.49 


1.80 


2.11 


2.43 


2.74 


3.05 


1100 


.77 


1.25 


L56 


1.87 


2.18 


2.50 


2.81 


3.12 


1200 


.84 


1.32 


1.63 


1.94 


2.25 


2.57 


2.88 


3.19 


1300 


.91 


1.39 


1.70 


2.01 


2.32 


2.64 


2.95 


3.26 


1400 


.98 


1.46 


1.77 


2.08 


2.39 


2.71 


3.02 


3.33 


1500 


1.05 


1.53 


1.84 


2.15 


2.46 


2.78 


3.09 


3.40 



TOTAL DIGESTIBLE SUBSTANCE^ REQUIRED, POUNDS 



800 


6.3 


9.0 


10.7 


12.5 


14.2 


16.0 


17.7 


19.5 


900 


7.1 


9.8 


11.5 


13.3 


15.0 


16.8 


18.5 


20.3 


1000 


7.9 


10.6 


12.3 


14.1 


15.8 


17.6 


19.3 


21.1 


1100 


8.7 


11.4 


13.1 


14 9 


16.6 


18.4 


20.1 


21.9 


1200 


9.5 


12.2 


13.9 


15.7 


17.4 


19.2 


20.9 


22.7 


1300 


10.3 


13.0 


14.7 


16.5 


18.2 


20.0 


21.7 


23.5 


1400 


11.1 


13.8 


15.5 


17.3 


19.0 


20.8 


22.5 


24.3 


1500 


11.9 


14.6 


16.3 


18.1 


19.8 


21.6 


23.3 


25.1 



Digestible protein plus digestible carbohydrates plus digestible fat. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 147 

The Eckles Standard for Dairy Cows. — Eckles, of the 
Missouri Station/ after very elaborate experimentation, re- 
cently has pubUshed a standard for dairy cows. He recom- 
mends the Armsby standard for maintenance, to which he 
adds the amounts of digestible true protein and net energy 
per pound of milk as indicated in Table 19. 

Table 19. — Requirements per Pound of Milk of Varying 
Richness (Eckles) 



Fat in Milk 


Digestible Protein 


Net Energy 


Per Cent 


Lh. 


Therms 


3.0 


0.050 


0.26 


3.5 


0.052 


0.28 


4.0 


0.055 


0.30 


4.5 


0.058 


0.33 


5.0 


0.062 


0.36 


5.5 


0.066 


0.40 


6.0 


0.070 


0.45 


6.5 


0.075 


0.50 



The requirement per pound of milk suggested for herd- 
feeding, where it is not practical to take into account the 
richness of the milk of each individual, is given in Table 20. 

Table 20. — Requirements Per Pound of Milk From Differ- 
ent Breeds (Eckles) 



Breed 


Digestible Protein 


Net Energ^ 


Holstein 

Shorthorn ] 

Ayrshire ) 

Brown Swiss J 
Jersey \ 
Guernsey / ' ' ' 


(6 ^ <6 


Therms 

0.26-0.28 
0.28-0.30 

0.40-0.45 



1 Research Bui. 7. 



148 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



The protein content and energy values of feedingstuffs as 
presented by Armsby (Table 31, Appendix) are used in 
calculating rations according to the Eckles standard. 

Summary of Standards for Dairy Cows. — It is of con- 
siderable interest to compare the different standards for 
milk production. For the maintenance of a 1000-pound 
cow, the different standards are given in Table 21. 

Table 21. — Summary of Standards for Maintenance of 
Dairy Cows 



Standard 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


Net 
Energy 


Armsby 

Haecker 

Savage 

Woll-Humphrey . 
Eckles 


Lh. 

0.61 
0.7 
0.7 
0.7 
0.6^ 


Lb. 
7.9 

7.9 
8.1 


Therms 

6.0 
6.0 


Average 


' 0.66 


7.97 


6.0 



For the production of 1 pound of 4 per cent milk, the 
standards are given in Table 22. 

Table 22. — Summary of Standards for Production of One 
Pound of 4 Per Cent Milk 



Standard 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


Net 
Energy 


Armsby 

Haecker 

Savage 

Woll-Humphrey . . . 
Eckles 


Lh. 

0.0501 
0.054 
0.065 
0.056 
0.055 1 


Lh. 

0.34 
0.35 
0.31 


Therms 

0.3 
0.3 
0.3 


Average . . . 


0.056 


0.33 


0.3 



1 True protein, not crude protein. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 149 

These results, obtained from careful, independent investiga- 
tion, agree with each other remarkably well and their average 
probably represents the requirements for milk production 
as closely as they may be represented by a mathematical 
expression. 

Requirements for Wool Production. — Inasmuch as wool 
is composed largely of protein, a small amount of protein 
is necessary for wool production. Armsby,^ after reviewing 
the available experiments, concludes that 0.14 lb. of protein 
daily per 1000 pounds hve weight should be added to the 
other protein requirements for wool production. In ex- 
periments by Grindley, Emmett, Coffey, and Bull at the 
Ilhnois Station,^ feeding large amounts of protein did not 
produce any more wool in the case of fattening lambs than 
when only a medium amount was fed. When sheep in good, 
thrifty condition receive sufficient nutrients for the other 
functions of the body, it is probable that the additional re- 
quirements for wool production may be neglected. 

The Feed Unit System of Calculating Rations. — Although 
it has been used but little in this country, the feed unit 
system is used quite extensively in Denmark, where it origi- 
nated, and in other Scandinavian countries. It is used 
almost entirely for dairy cows, though to a slight extent for 
the other classes of farm animals. 

Unhke the other standards already discussed, the feed 
unit system does not take into account either the total 
digestible nutrients or the net energy values of the feeds. 
Instead, the different feeds, after many carefully conducted 
feeding experiments, were given equivalent values, regarding 

1 U. S. Dept. of Agr. Bur. of Anim. Ind. Bui. 143. 

2 Unpublished data. 



150 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



a pound of mixed grain like com, wheat, or barley as the 
standard by which all other feeds are compared. Thus 
corn, wheat, and barley were all given a value of '' 1 unit " 
per pound after it was found that equal amounts of these 
feeds could be substituted for each other in the ration with- 
out materially affecting the amount of production by the 
animal. It was found that one pound of corn could be re- 
placed by 0.8 pound of cottonseed meal without decreasing 
or increasing the production. Consequently, it takes only 
0.8 pound of cottonseed meal to equal one unit. The 
amounts of other feeds required to equal one unit were deter- 
mined in the same way. 

The amounts of different feeds required to equal one feed 
unit are given in Table 23, in so far as they have been deter- 
mined. 



Table 23. — Amounts of Different Feeds Equivalent to 
One Feed Unit 



Feedingstuff 


Feed Required to Equal 
One Unit 




Average 


Range 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Corn, wheat, rye, barley, hominy feed, dried 






brewers' grains, wheat middlings, peas, 






dried beet pulp, dry matter in roots . . 


1.0 


— 


Cottonseed meal, peanut meal 


0.8 


— 


Linseed meal, dried distillers' grains, gluten 






feed, soy beans 


0.9 


— 


Wheat bran, oats, malt sprouts, molasses 








1.1 


— 


Alfalfa meal, alfalfa-molasses feed .... 


1.2 


— 


Alfalfa hay, clover hay 


2.0 


1.5- 3.0 


Mixed hay, oat hay, oat and pea hay, barley 






and pea hay, red top hay 


2.5 


2.0- 3.0 


Timothy hay. prairie hay, sorghum hay . . 


3.0 


2.5- 4.0 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 151 



Table 23, — Amounts of Different Feeds Equivalent to 
One Feed Unit {Continued) 



Feedingstuff 



Corn stover, corn fodder, straw 

Green alfalfa 

Corn silage 

Wet brewers' grains .... 

Sugar beets 

Carrots 

Rutabagas 

Field beets, rape 

Turnips, mangels, fresh beet pulp 
Pasture, per day 



Feed Required to Equal 


One 


Unit 


Average 


Range 


Lb ■ 


Lb. 


4.0 


3.5^ 6.0 


7.0 


6.0- 8.0 


6.0 


— 


4.0 


— 


7.0 


— 


8.0 


— 


9.0 


8.0-10.0 


10.0 


— 


12.5 


10.0-15.0 


— 


8-121 



The following feeding standard ^ for dairy cows has been 
proposed by Hansson, of the Royal Swedish Academy for a 
1000-pound cow per day : 

For maintenance, 0.65 lb, digestible protein and 6.6 feed units. 
For production, 0.045 lb. to 0.05 lb. digestible protein and \ feed 
unit per pound of milk. 

Thus a ration for a 1100-pound cow giving 40 pounds of 
milk is calculated as follows : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Feed Units 


Required for maintenance . . . 
Required for production .... 


Lb. 

0.72 
2.00 


7.3 
13.3 


Total requirement .... 


2.72 


20.6 



1 Depending upon kind and condition. 

2 After WoU, " Productive Feeding of Farm Animals," p. 80. 



152 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



A ration consisting of 7| pounds of ground corn, 3 pounds of 
linseed oil meal, 10 pounds of clover hay, and 30 pounds of 
corn silage would contain the following amount of digestible 
protein and feed units : 





Digestible 
Pkotein 


Feed Units 


7\ ib. corn contain 

3 lb. oil meal contain .... 
10 lb. clover hay contain . . . 
30 lb. corn silage contain . . . 


Lh. 

0.59 
0.92 
0.71 
0.39 


7.5 
3.3 
5.0 
5.0 


Total ration contains 


2.61 


20.8 



This ration satisfies the requirements of the standard. 

The feed unit system is especially valuable as a means 
of comparing the efficiency of production by different cows, 
as it is quite easy to calculate the amount of milk produced 
per feed unit. It is the official standard of many cow-testing 
associations in Europe. 

Self-feeders. — Any study of feeding standards and bal- 
anced rations is incomplete without a discussion of the 
'' cafeteria system " of balancing rations. By the cafeteria 
system the animals are given free access to different feeds 
and allowed to eat as much or as little of each feed as they 
choose. This is done usually by means of a self-feeder, 
which is a feed box so built as to hold a considerable quantity 
of concentrated feed, a portion of which is accessible to the 
animals at all times, and at the same time protect the large 
bulk of the feed from the weather and keep the animals 
from mussing over it. 



THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 153 



Figure 24 shows a self-feeder for cattle as designed by 
Mumford of the Ilhnois Station. Figure 25 shows a self- 
feeder for hogs as designed by Carmichael of the Illinois 
Station. 

For Hogs. — Evvard of Iowa has conducted the most 
elaborate experiments with self-feeders for hogs. Evvard 
found that, in feeding 
hogs for the market, 
self-fed hogs made 
more rapid and more 
economical gains 
than hand-fed hogs. 
In another experi- 
ment seven lots were 
fed as follows : Lot 
1, according to the 
Wolf f-Lehmann 
standard ; Lot II, 
according to the Kell- 
ner standard ; Lot 
III, according to the 

Dietrich standard with water at free will ; Lot IV, accord- 
ing to Dietrich with water weighed; Lot V, self -fed corn, 
middlings, and tankage ; Lot VI had free choice of the same 
feeds offered them three times daily ; and Lot VII had free 
choice of the same feeds offered them twice daily. The free- 
choice and self-fed lots made the fastest and most econom- 
ical gains, requiring considerable less grain for 100 pounds 
of gain than those fed according to accepted standards. 

Professor Evvard states that in case of breeding gilts it 
may be necessary to limit the corn either by hand feeding 




Fig. 24. 



A self-feeder for cattle. 
Beef Production.) 



(Mumford, 



154 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




THE FEED REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS 155 

or by mixing it with ground alfalfa hay. From these and 
other experiments the Iowa Station concludes that the pig's 
own appetite, with free choice of feeds before him at all 
times, seems to be the best feeding standard for swine. 

For Cattle. — Self-feeders are perhaps more generally 
used for fattening cattle than for any other class of Uve stock. 
In a census taken by Mumford and Hall at the Illinois 
Experiment Station ^ among the larger cattle feeders of 
Illinois, it was found that 28 per cent of them were using 
the self-feeder. If one includes the smaller feeders perhaps 
it would be found that a smaller per cent than this are using 
the self-feeder. 

The objections to the use of the self-feeder for cattle are 
as follows : 

1. It cannot be safely used to start cattle on feed. Thus 
they should be hand-fed until they are on full-feed, or the 
hay may be ground or cut finely and mixed with the con- 
centrates until they are on full-feed. Unless considerable 
care is taken in getting them on full-feed there will be danger 
of founder. 

2. Even under the most favorable conditions cattle re- 
quire slightly more feed to produce a pound of grain when 
self-fed. 

3. It is difficult to furnish the nitrogenous concentrate in 
the self-feeder and it often is fed by hand. 

4. The feeder is liable to become careless and not pay 
enough attention to the cattle. An old German adage states, 
'^ The eye of the master fattens his cattle." 

5. Unless the feeder is properly constructed there wiU be 
a loss of feed by slobbering or mussing over it. 

1 Cir. 98. 



156 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

6. The cost of a feeder large enough to accommodate 10 
or 12 steers will be between $35 and $50. 

7, There will be less roughage consumed than when hand 
feeding is practiced. 

The advantages of the self-feeder for cattle are as follows : 

1. It is more economical of labor. 

2. It is more reliable than a careless man. 

3. Cattle will eat more and make greater gains and con- 
sequently require a shorter feeding period. 

4. When properly constructed, there is little feed wasted. 
Thus it seems that, although the self-feeder for tattle is not 

advisable for all conditions, yet there certainly is a place for 
it upon some corn belt farms*, especially where labor is expen- 
sive and unreliable and where roughage is scarce. 

For Sheep. — Self-feeders for sheep are used to a large 
extent by men who make a practice of feeding large numbers 
of western lambs or wethers. They are used to only a small 
extent by small feeders, as they reduce the gains and waste 
feed owing to the fact that the sheep is very particular 
about eating feed which has been slobbered over by other 
animals. Most good sheepmen, however, have a "lamb 
creep " in which feed is kept in an ordinary feed trough for 
suckling lambs. 

For Horses. — Self-feeders are never used for horses except 
when a *' creep " is provided for sucking and weanling foals. 
Then the feed is kept in a feed box or trough rather than in 
a self-feeder. 



CHAPTER IX 
GRAINS AND SEEDS 

Introduction 

It has been stated that f eedingstuffs may be divided into 
concentrates and roughages on the basis of their content of 
net energy and digestible nutrients. 

For convenience of study, concentrates and roughages 
may be divided further into classes and sub-classes on the 
basis of their physical charact'eristics and sources, according 
to the following outline : 



Concentrates : 


I. 


Grains and seeds 




1. Cereals 




2. Legumes 




3. Oil-bearing seeds 


11. 


Cereal by-products 


III. 


Oil by-products 


IV. 


Packinghouse by-products 


V. 


Miscellaneous concentrates 


Roughages : 


I. 


Hays 




1. Legumes 




2; Grasses 


II. 


Fodders and stovers 


III. 


Straws 




157 



158 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



V. 
VI. 



IV. Pasture or forage, and soiling crops 

1. Legumes 

2. Grasses 
Silage 
Miscellaneous roughages 

Grains and seeds may be subdivided into three sub-classes, 
viz : (1) cereal grains, (2) legume seeds, and (3) oil-bearing 
seeds. 

CEREAL GRAINS 

A cereal may be defined as any plant belonging to the grass 
family which yields a farinaceous {i.e. floury or mealy) 



£:?y^-7XQ^r--~=: ,- ft 


^ 




If 




p 



Fig. 26. — Corn production in the United States. (United States Census.) 
Black shading, more than 3200 bu. per square mile ; next shading, 640 to 3200 
bu. ; next-to-bottom shading, 64 to 640 bu. ; bottom shading, less than 64 bu. 

grain suitable for human food. The term is applied both 
to the plant as a whole and to the grain itself. The leading 
cereal grains of importance as feedingstuffs to the corn-belt 
farmer are corn, wheat, oats, rye, and barley. Of less im- 
portance are emmer, speltz, sorghum, millet, and rice. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



159 



Corn. — Corn is not only the most important concentrate 
of the corn-belt, but it is also the most important single 
feedingstuff grown in the United States. The reason for 
this Hes in the fact that, under favorable conditions, corn 
will produce upon the same acreage a greater amount of 
digestible nutrients than almost any other crop. It will 
produce about twice as much as any of the other cereals. 
Table 24 clearly illustrates this point. 

, Table 24. — Yield of Digestible Nutrients per Acre 



Crop 




Digestible Nu- 
trients PER 
Acre 



Corn — Grain 

Stover . 
Oats — Grain 
Straw 
Barley — Grain . 
Straw . 
Wheat — Grain . 
Straw . 
Soy beans — Grain 
Straw 
Cowpeas — Grain 
Straw 

Clover hay 
Alfalfa hay . . 
Cowpea hay . . 
Timothy hay 
Shock corn . . 
Corn silage . . 
Green corn 
Sorghum (green) 
Sugar beets . . 
Mangels . . . 
Rape .... 



50 


bu. 1 


H 


tons 


40 


bu. 


U 


tons 


40 


bu. 


1 


ton 


20 


bu. 1 


1 


ton 


15 


bu. 


1 


ton 


12 


bu. 


1 


ton 



2| tons 

4 tons 

2| tons 

li tons 

3| tons 

10 tons 

10 tons 

10 tons 

20 tons 

20 tons 

10 tons 



Lb. 
3795 

2045' 

2278 

1661 

1392 

1332 

2335 
4152 
2490 
1437 
2681 
3260 
2660 
2500 
4480 
2680 
2080 



160 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



m.^ 



'.^£Sb? 



Over two-thirds of the corn crop of the United States is 
produced by the following states : IlHnois, Iowa, Kansas, 
^ Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, and Ohio. 

Consequently, these states are often spoken 
of as '^ the corn-belt." Although corn is 
grown to a considerable extent in many other 
states, in no instance is the production larger 
than the consumption. In many states little 
or no corn is grown. Over 90 per cent of 
the total corn crop of the United States is 
produced by 21 states. 

There are two races of corn of special 
interest to the stock feeder, viz., flint corn 
and dent corn. Fhnt corn is harder, smaller, 
and yields less than dent corn. It is es- 
pecially adapted to 
localities with a sea- 
son too short to pro- 
duce the dent varie- 
ties. It is grown 
largely in the north- 
ern and eastern parts 
of the United States. 
In the corn-belt, dent corn is practi- 
cally the only race of corn used for 
stock feeding, owing to the larger 
yield. There is little difference in 
the chemical composition and feed- 
ing value of flint and dent corn. 

Corn may be of varied colors, yellow and white being the 
most common. It is often said that yellow corn has a 



--'3 



Fig. 27. — An 
ear of dent corn. 
(Livingston, Field 
Crop Production.) 




Fig. 28. — Cross-section 
of a kernel of dent corn. 
(Livingston, Field Crop 
Production.) 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



161 



higher feeding value than white corn, or vice versa. How- 
ever, as a matter of fact, there is no difference in either 
the chemical composition or the feeding — 

value of white and yellow corn. 

The average chemical composition of corn ; | 

is as follows : water, 10.6 per cent; ash, 1.5 \ 

per cent ; crude protein, 10.3 per cent ; crude 
fiber, 2.2 per cent ; nitrogen-free extract, 
70.4 per cent; and fat, 5.0 per cent. Its 
net energy value in 88.8 therms per 100 
pounds. As shown by its chemical compo- 
sition and energy value, corn is preeminently 
a fattening feed. In this respect it is with- 
out a rival. It is relatively high in starch 
and fat, medium in crude protein, and quite 
low in ash. Furthermore, as has been men- 
tioned already, the principal protein of corn 
is not satisfactory for growth. Hence corn 
should be fed to 
young animals, breed- 
ing animals, and milk ^^^: ^?- ~ ^^ 

ear of nmt corn, 
cows in moderation, (Livingston, Field 
audit should be sup- Crop Production.) 

plemented by feeds rich enough in 
protein and mineral matter to make 
up the deficiencies in these nutrients. 
Corn is a very palatable feed, owing 
to its high content of fat and its crisp, 
flinty nature. As a matter of fact it 
is the most palatable of all the cereals. 

Corn may be fed in various ways. It is fed as ear corn, 



I 



I 




Fig. 30. — Cross-section 
of a kernel of flint corn. 
(Livingston, Field Crop 
Production.) 



162 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

especially to horses and hogs ; as broken ears, especially 
to cattle ; as shelled corn, especially to sheep ; and as 
ground corn, especially to milk cows, and to young animals 
in general. It is also fed as fodder corn, as a forage, and as 
silage. 

For Growing Stock. — In general corn should be used 
in limited amounts in the feeding of growing animals as it 
is deficient in muscle- and bone-forming constituents. For 
such animals, it should be supplemented by concentrates 
which are rich in protein and mineral matter and by the 
legume hays. 

For calves and growing cattle, corn may comprise from 
one-fourth to one-half the concentrates of the ration, the 
remainder of the concentrates being made up of feeding- 
stuffs containing more protein and mineral matter. If possi- 
ble, legume hays also should be fed with it. If non-legume 
roughages are fed, the proportion of corn in the ration should 
be decreased, and the nitrogeneous concentrates increased. 
For young calves, corn should be ground. The ears should 
be broken for older cattle. 

In case of foals and young horses, corn should not form 
more than one-third of the concentrates. Oats, bran, or a 
little linseed meal should be used with it to make up the defi- 
ciency in protein and mineral matter. Young foals should 
have ground corn, and older colts, ear-corn. 

Corn should be fed to growing pigs in limited amounts, 
supplemented by such nitrogenous feeds as tankage, mid- 
dhngs, Unseed meal, skim milk, or clover or alfalfa pasture. 
From 50 to 90 per cent of the ration, depending upon the 
amount of protein in the supplement used, may consist of 
ear corn. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 163 

Young lambs should be fed ground corn ^vith ground oats, 
bran, gluten feed, or linseed meal. As soon as they get their 
teeth, lambs should have shelled corn or finely broken ear 
corn. Not over 50 per cent of the concentrates should 
consist of corn unless it is intended to fatten them. They 
should have clover or alfalfa as roughage. 

For Fattening Stock. — As previously stated, corn is pre- 
eminently a fattening feed. In fact, it is the best fattening 
feed available, especially if properly supplemented. 

When fed to fattening cattle ^vith clover, alfalfa, or other 
legume hay, corn may form from 75 to 90 per cent of the 
concentrates of the ration. When fed with a non-nitrogenous 
roughage, as timothy hay, corn stover, silage, or straw, the 
proportion of corn in the concentrates should be reduced. 
Corn should be supplemented by linseed oil meal, cottonseed 
meal, gluten meal, or soy beans. It is probably most 
economical to feed corn to fattening cattle in the form of 
broken ears, except in case it is fed ^\dth silage when it should 
be shelled. However, when unground corn is fed to fatten- 
ing cattle, they should be followed by hogs to pick up any 
lost or undigested grain. 

For fattening mature hogs, corn alone may be successfully 
used, especially if they have access to pasture. Inasmuch 
as most fattening is done when the hogs are immature, 
however, corn should be supplemented ^vith such feeds as 
tankage or middlings. Corn may make up from 75 to 95 
per cent of the ration depending upon the amount of protein 
in the supplementary feed. It is probably most economical 
to feed ear-corn to fattening hogs, although some authorities 
advocate shelhng and soaking, or grinding corn for fattening 
hogs weighing ^50 to 200 pounds. 



164 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

For fattening lambs and sheep, shelled or finely broken ear- 
corn may form the sole concentrate if fed with clover or 
alfalfa hay. If fed with a non-nitrogenous roilghage, as 
timothy hay or corn stover, Unseed meal, cottonseed meal, 
gluten feed, or some other nitrogenous concentrate should 
furnish 25 per cent of the concentrates of the ration. 

For Breeding Stock. — The same precautions, only perhaps 
in a less degree, should be taken in feeding corn to breeding 
stock as in feeding it to growing animals. Especially is 
this true during pregnancy. An excess of corn in the ration 
not only does not furnish sufficient protein and mineral 
matter for the proper development of the foetus, but it 
also is too heating and too fattening. 

Breeding cattle require httle or no corn when good pasture 
is available. In winter, it should not make up over one-half 
the concentrates. Perhaps the best way to utilize corn for 
breeding cows is in the form of silage properly supplemented. 

In the case of brood mares, either pregnant or nursing a 
foal, corn should not form more than one-third of the con- 
centrates. Oats or bran with a little linseed meal should be 
used with it in order to supply the deficiency in protein and 
mineral matter. In connection with this statement, it 
should be noted that many of the brood mares of the corn- 
belt have no other concentrate than corn, and no other 
roughage than timothy hay. If considerable corn is used 
in the ration, some good, clean clover or alfalfa hay, or 
clover or blue grass pasture should be available. 

Corn is too fattening, too heating, and too deficient in 
bone- and muscle-forming constitutents to justify its use 
in large quantities by breeding hogs. It may be used, how- 
ever, up to the extent of one-third to one-half the concentrates 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 165 

of the ration, the remainder being made up of such feeding- 
stuffs as ground oats, wheat middhngs, and bran with a 
Httle tankage. Blue grass, clover, or alfalfa pasture makes 
a good supplement to corn. 

For breeding ewes, corn should not make up more than 
50 per cent of the concentrated portion of the ration. Even 
less than this usually will give better results. A mixture 
of such feedingstuffs as oats, bran, or linseed meal should 
make up the remainder of the concentrates of the ration. 

For Milk Cows. — Inasmuch as the milk cow requires large 
amounts of protein and mineral matter for milk production, 
the ration should be correspondingly rich in these nutrients. 
Consequently, corn ordinarily should not make up more than 
50 per cent of the concentrates, even when fed mth ni- 
trogenous roughages. The remainder of the concentrates 
should consist of a mixture of several of such feedingstuffs 
as oats, gluten feed, linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal, 
and bran. When fed with a non-nitrogenous roughage, not 
over one-fourth or one-third of the concentrates should 
consist of corn. Corn usually is fed to milk cows in the 
form of ground corn, or corn and cob meal, which is the 
entire ear, coarsely ground. 

For Work Horses. — It was thought formerly that corn 
was not a proper feed for work horses, oats being preferable. 
However, it was found by Carmichael at the Ohio Experi- 
ment ^Station ^ that when mixed hay was fed to mature 
geldings at general farm work, ear corn was as efficient, 
pound for pound, as oats. Moreover, the use of corn was 
more economical. At the Missouri Experiment Station,^ 
Trowbridge found that mature mules doing farm work were 
1 Bui. 195, * Bui. 114. 



166 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

kept 28 per cent more economically on a ration of corn and 
mixed hay than on a ration of oats and mixed hay. How- 
ever, at the Kansas Experiment Station/ McCampbell 
found that oats were better than corn when fed with either 
timothy or prairie hay. When fed with alfalfa hay, corn 
gave as good results and was one-third cheaper than a 
ration of oats and prairie hay. Also actual practice seems 
to show that, in the case of mature working horses, corn 
may be fed in large amounts for extended periods of time 
with practically as good results as when oats comprise the 
grain ration. This is of considerable practical importance 
as, at ordinary prices, corn makes a much cheaper ration than 
oats. 

Soft corn is corn which has been killed by frost while the 
grain is still immature. Consequently it contains too 
much moisture for storage or shipment. It may contain 
as much as 30 or 40 per cent water. The only use for soft 
corn is to feed it as soon as possible to cattle, hogs, or sheep. 
It is not a safe feed to use for horses, and considerable care 
should be exercised in getting the other farm animals upon 
a full feed of soft corn. In an experiment with fattening 
steers by Kennedy, Dinsmore, Rutherford, and Smith at 
the Iowa Station,^ it was found that soft corn was equal to 
sound corn in feeding value, pound for pound of dry sub- 
stance. In feeding soft corn better results will be obtained 
by feeding three or four times a day as an animal cannot 
eat enough dry substance to obtain the best results if fed 
only twice a day. 

Wheat. — Wheat generally is considered too valuable as 
a human food to be of particular importance as a stock 

1 Bui. 186. 2 Bui. 75. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 167 

feed. Under exceptional conditions, however, as in case 
of an abnormally cheap price or poor quahty, wheat may be 
utiUzed profitably as a feed for farm animals. Some feeders 
make it a rule to feed their wheat when it is worth only ten 
per cent more than corn. It is estimated by the United 
States Department of Agriculture that ordinarily about two 
per cent of the total wheat crop is utihzed as feed for 
farm animals. 

There are two kinds of wheat, viz., spring and winter 
wheat. Winter wheat is the ordinary wheat of the corn- 
belt. It is sown in the fall and harvested the following 
summer. Spring wheat is sown in the spring and harvested 
that summer. It is grown especially in Minnesota, Iowa, 
Nebraska, the Dakotas, Montana, and in central and 
western Canada, where the cHmate is too severe for winter 
wheat. There is Httle or no cUfference in the chemical 
composition and feeding value of winter and spring wheat. 

The average chemical composition of wheat is as follows : 
water, 10.5 per cent; ash, 1.8 per cent; crude protein, 11.9 
per cent; crude fiber, 1.8 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 
71.9 per cent; and fat, 2.1 per cent. Its net energy value 
is 82.6 therms per 100 pounds. Wheat differs from corn in 
chemical composition in having sUghtly more protein and 
mineral matter, and less than half the amount of fat. Its 
energy value is somewhat less. However, wheat is not 
flinty ^and crisp hke corn, but chews up into a gummy, un- 
palatable mass, so that, except in case of sheep, it is unsuited 
for feeding purposes without previously being ground and 
mixed with some coarser feed, such as bran or oats. 

For Growing Stock. — Wheat is somewhat better adapted 
than corn for. growing animals as it contains more protein 



168 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

and mineral matter. However, wheat alone is not a satis- 
factory ration for growing animals. At the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station,^ wheat and mineral matter were not 
sufficient to produce normal growth in pigs. However, the 
addition of a small amount of milk produced satisfactory- 
growth. Thus, wheat should be fed to immature animals 
with other feeds, particularly those high in protein. 

For calves and young cattle, ground wheat is an excellent 
feed. The addition of oats up to 50 per cent of the concen- 
trates usually improves the ration. For colts, wheat should 
be ground and mixed with bran or oats. It is not satisfactory 
when fed alone. For young pigs, wheat is superior to corn. 
It should be ground and fed in a slop with water or, prefer- 
ably, with skim milk or buttermilk. Wheat is also excel- 
lent for lambs. It need not be ground for them, however. 

For Fattening Stock. — In general, wheat is somewhat less 
valuable for fattening than corn. However, it produces a 
carcass superior to that of corn-fed animals. 

For fattening cattle, ground wheat is not quite equal, 
pound for pound, to ground corn. A mixture of the two 
grains is better than either when fed alone. Wheat-fed 
steers have less fat and more bright-colored lean meat than 
corn-fed steers. For fattening hogs, corn and wheat are 
about equal, but the quality of the meat of the wheat-fed 
hogs is superior. A mixture of ground wheat and corn is 
better than either fed alone. Wheat-meal should be fed 
in a slop with either water or milk. It was found by Bhss 
and Lee at the Nebraska Experiment Station ^ that grinding 
increased the value for hogs about one-third. Soaking 
either ground or unground wheat made no appreciable diff er- 

1 Jour. Biol. Chem. XIX, 1914, p. 373. 2 BuI. 144. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 169 

ence in the results. Frozen, slightly burned or charred, or 
shrunken and damaged wheat is nearly as valuable for hog 
feeding as the marketable grain. For sheep and lambs, 
wheat is excellent during the early stages of fattening, but 
corn is about 10 per cent more valuable during the latter 
stages of fattening. It is excellent as a feed for show animals 
on account of the firm flesh which it produces. Frozen or 
otherwise damaged wheat often is fed to sheep. Wheat 
need not be ground for sheep. 

For Breeding Stock. — Wheat is better than corn for breed- 
ing stock, owing to the larger amount of bone- and muscle- 
forming constitutents in it. Further, it is not so fattening 
nor so heating as corn. However, wheat should not form 
the sole ration of breeding animals. At the Wisconsin 
Experiment Station,^ heifers and cows which were fed on 
wheat, wheat gluten, and wheat straw produced weak or 
dead calves. The milk flow was decreased, and the cows 
themselves were not normal. However, when alfalfa hay 
replaced the wheat straw of the ration, the deficiencies of 
the ration were overcome. 

For milk cows, ground wheat is fully equal or superior 
to ground corn. It should be mixed with other concentrates, 
including a nitrogenous concentrate. 

For work horses, wheat alone is unsatisfactory. Ground 
and mixed with bran and oats, it forms a satisfactory ration. 

Oats. — Next to corn, oats are the most extensively 
grown cereal in the United States. They are naturally 
adapted to a cooler chmate than corn, but they can be 
grown successfully in a warmer chmate provided the rain- 
fall is sufficient. Thus they are grown over a large area. 

1 Research Bui. 17. 



170 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




GRAINS AND SEEDS 171 

Viewed from the standpoint of general adaptation for 
feeding live stock, no cereal compares with oats, as they can 
be fed with safety to practically all classes of animals. 

The average chemical composition of oats is as follows : 
water, 10.0 per cent ; ash, 3.0 per cent ; crude protein, 
11.8 per cent; crude fiber, 9.5 per cent; nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, 59.7 per cent ; and fat, 5.0 per cent. Their net energy 
value is 66.3 therms per 100 pounds. Oats contain about 
twice as much ash, and a little more crude protein than corn. 
Furthermore, the mixed proteins of oats are more satisfactory 
for maintenance and growth. Oats contain considerably 
less energy than corn. Their high content of crude fiber, due 
largely to the loose, fight husk which incloses the kernel, 
gives them such volume that an animal rarely suffers from 
eating too much of them, although they may cause choking 
if eaten too rapidly. Oats are fed both whole and ground 
or rolled. They are usually ground for very young animals, 
for dairy cows, for horses at very hard work, and for horses 
with poor teeth. 

Low grade, discolored oats are often bleached by treatment 
with sulphurous acid fumes in order to raise the market grade. 
Horsemen claim that bleached oats are sometimes injurious. 

For Growing Stock. — The chemical composition and energy 
value of oats indicate that they are a growing, rather than a 
fattening feed. In addition, the physical structure of oats 
makes^ them a particularly safe feed on account of the sfight 
danger of causing digestive disturbances by their use. 
Their cost is practically the only factor which may limit 
their use. 

For calves and young cattle, oats may be ground and fed 
either as the sole concentrate, or in combination with ground 



172 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

corn or barley and some nitrogenous concentrate, as linseed 
meal or bran. For foals, oats should be ground or crushed. 
They should make up a large part of the concentrates of 
colts and young horses. Ground oats with the hulls sifted 
out may be fed to young pigs, but are not much used for 
that purpose as cheaper rations will usually produce better 
results. Ground oats with the hulls sifted out are especially 
good for very young lambs. The whole grain is also very 
good for lambs that are to be kept for breeding purposes. 

For Fattening Stock. — Owing to their small amount of 
nitrogen-free extract and their low energy value, oats are 
much inferior to corn, wheat, and barley for fattening, and 
should not be used for this purpose unless they are very 
cheap in price. 

If their cost permits, they may be used for cattle in the 
early part of the fattening period to the extent of one-fourth 
or one-half the concentrates of the ration. After the cattle 
are on full-feed, a more fattening concentrate should be 
substituted for them. Although it is thought by many cattle 
feeders that oats are essential to the successful production 
of baby beef, it has been found by Rusk at the Ilhnois 
Experiment Station ^ that this is not true. In fact, the use 
of oats considerably increased the cost of gains. They may 
be of value, however, in getting the calves on full-feed, but 
are not essential for this purpose. 

For Breeding Stock. — Owing to their large amount of 
ash, their relatively large amount of protein, and their 
physical structure, oats are an excellent feed for breeding 
animals, although they are usually quite expensive. The 
use of oats in the rations of breeding cows, brood mares, 

1 Unpublished data. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 173 

and breeding ewes may be limited only by their cost. They 
also may be used quite extensively in the rations of brood 
sows, but a cheaper substitute usually may be found to 
answer this purpose. 

For milk cows there is no better feed than oats. They 
may constitute the whole or any part of the concentrates 
in the ration, depending upon their price. Wheat bran, 
ground corn, and ground oats in equal parts make a good 
combination of concentrates for dairy cows. Even when 
more expensive than corn, it usually is profitable to use 
some oats in the ration. As a supplement to corn, oats are 
more valuable, pound for pound, than bran. Unless bran is 
used in the ration, however, some nitrogenous concentrate, 
as linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal, or gluten feed should be 
used with the corn and oats. The amount of the nitrogenous 
concentrate will depend largely upon the nature of the rough- 
age, i.e. whether it is nitrogenous or non-nitrogenous. 

For Work Horses. — Concerning the use of oats as a horse 
feed. Gay ^ makes the following statement : " The concen- 
trate best adapted to the feeding of horses is oats; on ac- 
count of both chemical and physical composition, they 
stand first in this class. They not only meet the protein 
and carbohydrate requirement best, but the hull is an 
advantage, in so extending the kernel as to insure more 
complete digestion. Besides, there seems ample reason for 
believing that oats improve the fettle, especially of harness 
and saddle horses." The pointed end of the oat hull is 
sometimes clipped off, reducing the proportion of hull and 
increasing the weight per bushel. Clipped oats are used 
as a fancy horse feed. 

1 "Productive Horse Husbanarir ,• ' p. 235. 



174 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Oats are an especially safe feed for horses, as the hull 
gives them such volume that the animal rarely suffers from 
gorging. For horses at very hard work, they should be 
crushed or ground. For horses with good teeth not doing too 
hard work, they may be fed whole. A grain ration con- 
sisting of two-thirds oats and one-third corn, barley , rye, 
or wheat, is considered quite satisfactory. As stated pre- 
viously, for economical purposes, oats may be largely or 
entirely supplemented by corn in the case of mature work 
horses. New and musty oats always should be avoided. 

Rye. — Rye is more closely related to wheat than to any 
other cereal although differing from it in several particulars. 
It is one of the hardiest of the cereals. It can be grown on 
land too low in fertility to give a good yield of corn, wheat, 
oats, or barley. It also will withstand weather conditions 
which would prove disastrous to wheat. For these reasons 
it has been called the grain of poverty. In general, it may 
be regarded as a surer crop than wheat. 

The average chemical composition of rye is as follows : 
water, 11.6 per cent; ash, 1.9 per cent; crude protein, 10.6 
per cent; crude fiber, 1.7 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 
72.5 per cent; and fat, 1.7 per cent. Its net energy value 
is 81.7 therms per 100 pounds. Although rye has nearly 
the same chemical composition and energy value as wheat, 
it is 5 to 10 per cent less valuable for stock feeding, owing 
to its very low degree of palatabihty. It should always 
be ground and thoroughly mixed with more palatable feeds 
for all classes of animals except sheep. 

For Growing Stock. — In general rye should be used in 
only limited amounts for growing stock. It should not form 
over one-third the concentrates of the ration. It should 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



175 



always be ground except for sheep. It is very doubtful 
if it is profitable to use rye very extensively, if at all, for 
growing animals except in case of hogs. 

For Fattening Stock. — 0^ving to its lack of palatabiUty, 
rye is not especially valuable as a feed for fattening cattle 
and sheep. Although but Httle used for 
hog feeding in this country, it is used quite 
extensively in Denmark. For hogs, rye is 
about equal to barley in feeding value and 
about 10 per cent less valuable than corn. 
It should be ground and fed as a thin slop. 
In prolonged feeding, it should be fed with 
corn or barley, and more nitrogenous con- 
centrates. Otherwise hogs soon tire of it. 

For Breeding Stock. — Rye should not be 
used to any marked extent in the rations 
of breeding stock. When it is used, care 
should be taken that it is not infected with 
the fungus, ergot, which may cause abortion. 

For Milk Cows. — Rye meal is slightly 
less valuable than corn for milk cows. It 
may be fed in limited amounts with other 
concentrates. If more than three pounds 
are fed daily, the quality of the milk and butter may be 
affected, as too much rye gives them a bitter flavor. Rye 
which is infected with ergot should not be used. 

For Work Horses. — Rye may be fed to work horses, pro- 
vided it is ground and mixed with other concentrates. It 
should not form more than one-third of the concentrates. 
Care should be taken that it is not infected with ergot, 
especially in the case of brood mares. 



Fig. 32. — Ergot 
in a head of rye. 
(Duggar, South- 
ern Field Crops.) 



176 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Barley. - 
of climate 



- Barley is grown successfully in a wider range 
thaii any other cereal. However, it seems to 
thrive best in a warm, dry chmate. It is 
grown principally on the Pacific coast and 
in the northern part of the United States, 
where corn is not especially successful, al- 
though it can be grown in the corn-belt. It 
is an excellent substitute for corn where the 
latter crop cannot be grown successfully. 
The best grades of barley are used princi- 
pally for brewing, and the lower grades are 
used for stock feeding. 

As in the case of oats, discolored barley 
is often bleached with sulphurous acid fumes 
to brighten it up and make it grade higher. 

The average chemical composition of bar- 
ley is as follows: water, 12.0 per cent; ash, 
2.5 per cent; crude protein, 11.4 per cent; 
crude fiber, 5.7 per cent ; nitrogen-free ex- 
tract, 66.6 per cent; and fat, 1.8 per cent. 
Its net energy value is 80.7 therms per 100 
pounds. It is richer in bone- and muscle- 
forming constituents than corn, and sHghtly 
lower in fattening constitutents. It is not 
as palatable as corn. The composition of 
hulled barley is almost identical with that 
of wheat. 

For feeding purposes, barley should be 
rolled rather than ground, as the ground bar- 
ley-meal forms a pasty mass in the mouth of 
the animal, which is difficult to masticate, swallow, and digest. 



Fig. 33.— a 
head of barley. 
(Livingston, Field 
Crop Production.) 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



177 



For Growing Stock. — Due to its higher content of protein 
and mineral matter, and its lower content of carbohydrates, 
barley may be used to a greater extent than corn in the 
rations of growing animals. 

For calves and growing cattle, barley should always be 
fed in combination ^vith other concentrates, such as bran, or 





^>7--.^ 




BARLEY cy>. 


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PBOOUOTIOM IN 1909 \ \ 




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Fig. 34. 



Distribution of barley production in the United States. 
States Census. 1910.) 



(United 



oats, or both, together with a little linseed meal. Other 
nitrogenous feeds may be substituted in part for the oats 
or bran. Ordinarily, barley should not form over one- 
third of the concentrates of such a ration. It should be fed 
with clover, alfalfa, or other legume hay as roughage. Barley, 
if fed with oats, bran, and linseed meal, proves satisfactory 
for colts and young horses. For growing pigs it is much 
better than corn. It should be properly supplemented by 



178 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



nitrogenous concentrates. Barley and oats make a good 
combination for very young lambs. 

For Fattening Stock. — In general, barley is slightly less 
valuable for fattening than corn, due to its lower content 
of carbohydrates and fat, and to its lower 
degree of palatability. 

For beef cattle, barley may form three- 
fourths of the concentrates, the other 
fourth being made up of nitrogenous 
concentrates. It should be fed with a 
legume hay. For fattening hogs, barley 
is about 10 per cent less valuable than 
corn. It produces a higher quality of 
pork, however. In Great Britain and 
northern Europe, barley is the leading 
feed for producing pork of fine quality. 
If fed in combination with corn, wheat 
middhngs, sldm milk, tankage, or alfalfa 
or clover pasture, barley is one of the 
best feeds for pork production. It is 
especially valuable for the production of 
bacon, as it produces a firmer flesh con- 
taining more lean and less fat than the 
flesh produced by corn. If fed with 
clover or alfalfa hay, barley may furnish all the concen- 
trated part of the ration of fattening lambs or sheep. How- 
ever, it is usually more satisfactory to substitute corn for 
a third of the barley. If fed with a non-nitrogenous 
roughage, additional protein in the form of Unseed meal or 
cottonseed meal should be given. It should be fed whole 
to sheep. 




Fig. 35. — A head 
of emmer. (Living- 
ston, Field Crop Pro- 
duction.) 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



179 



For Breeding Stock. — Barley may be used quite exten- 
sively in the rations of breeding animals, — up to one-third 
or one-half of the concentrates, especially when fed with 
clover or alfalfa hay. 

For Milk Cows. — In Denmark a mixture of one part of 
barley and two parts of oats is regarded as the best available 
concentrate for dairy cattle. If fed with 
ground oats or bran and a more nitrogenous 
concentrate, the barley constituting not over 
one-half the mixture, it is nearly as valuable as 
corn. 

For Work Horses. — Barley is used quite ex- 
tensively as the sole grain feed for horses on the 
Pacific coast, where corn and oats do not flour- 
ish. Also it is used extensively in Europe. 
Some authorities claim that barley is as valu- 
able a feed for horses as oats. When the horses' 
teeth are good and the labor is not too severe, 
it may be fed whole. Otherwise, it should be 
rolled or crushed. 

Emmer and speltz are quite similar grains 
which belong to the wheat family, although 
in appearance they closely resemble barley. 
They are especially valuable in the semi-arid 
regions of the West and Northwest, as they 
are quite resistant to drought. They are 
similar in composition to barley, but are 
somewhat less valuable for feeding purposes. 

The sorghums are divided into two groups, the non- 
saccharine, or grain sorghums, and the saccharine, or sweet 
sorghums, depending upon whether or not the stems con- 



FiG. 36. — A 
head of speltz. 
(Livingston, 
Field Crop Pro- 
duction.) 



180 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




GRAINS AND SEEDS 



181 



s 4 # ^ ^ • 

4 s # -# # 



ft^ 



1^ J a ^ 

# # # 

# t # ^ 



182 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



tain sugar in appreciable amounts. Both the sweet and 
grain sorghums are used to a large extent for human food 
in Asia and Africa. In this country the grain sorghums 
are grown to considerable extent, and 
the sweet sorghums to a slight extent, 
for stock-feeding. The sweet sor- 
ghums are not used for grain but for 
forage. Being drought-resistant, the 
grain sorghums are especially valuable 
as substitutes for corn in the semi- 
arid states of the West and South- 
west, such as Kansas, Oklahoma, and 
Texas. 

The principal grain sorghums are 
kafir corn, milo-maize, feterita, kowli- 
ang, and shallu. The seeds are small, 
round, hard, and of various colors. 
They are borne in large clusters at the 
top of the stalk of the plant, which 
somewhat resembles corn in appear- 
ance. 

The grain contains more carbohy- 
drates, but less protein and fat than 
corn. It may be used for all classes 
of live stock and is perhaps about 
90 per cent as valuable as corn. It 
should be threshed and ground for fattening cattle, while it 
may be fed threshed or in the head to working horses and 
to sheep. It may be fed unthreshed to idle horses, dairy 
cows, and young stock in general. It should be threshed and 
ground for hogs. 




Fig. 39. — a panicle of 
rice. (Livingston, Field 
Crop Production.) 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



183 



The Millets. — Like the sorghums, the millets are grown 
extensively in Asia and Africa as human food. They are 
grown sometimes for their seed in the plains region of this 
country, north of the areas best suited for the sorghums, 
and are often used as catch-crops 
in the corn-belt. Millet seed con- 
tains more crude fiber and less 
nitrogen-free extract and fat than 
corn. Its feeding value is consid- 
erably less than that of corn. 

Rice is grown exclusively in the 
South for human food. When dam- 
aged or cheap in price it may be 
used for stock-feeding with good 
results. It is very high in carbo- 
hydrates, but is low in protein and 
fat. It has a feeding value equal 
to that of corn, and when properl}^ supplemented, may be 
fed with good results to horses, cattle, sheep, or hogs if the 
cost will permit. 



^i 


^i 


9 i 




«» ( 


#^ 


«n 


«• 


Fig. 40.— 
of cowpeas. 

Plants.) 


Ten varietie.s 
(Piper, Forage 



THE LEGUME SEEDS 

The principal legume seeds used in stock feeding are 
Canada field peas, cowpeas, soybeans, peanuts, and field 
beans. 

The Canada field pea is grown principally in Canada, 
northern United States, and in some of the Rocky Mountain 
valleys where the spring and summer heat is not too great. 

The field pea is rich in protein and mineral matter. Com- 
bined with other f eedingstuff s, field peas are eminently fitted 
as a feed for. dairy cows and may make up as much as 50 



184 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




Fig. 41. — Ten varieties 
of soybeans. (Piper, For- 
age Plants.) 



per cent of the concentrates of the ration. They are also 
very good, especially in the form of pasture, as a part of the 
ration of sheep and lambs. With 

{ground corn, bran, or middlings, pea- 
% " ^ meal forms an excellent ration for 
■I A growing and breeding hogs. It should 
not be fed alone as it is too heavy 
and indigestible. For fattening hogs 
it is a satisfactory supplement to corn. 
Although Uttle used for horse feeding, 
Gay ^ states that they may be em- 
ployed profitably in combination with 
other concentrates. 

Cowpeas are grown extensively in 
the South, and some varieties may 

be grown successfully in the corn-belt. They often may be 

profitably grown as a substitute for 

clover when the latter fails. Another 

practice is to plant cowpeas with the 

corn, or sow the peas between the corn 

rows after the last cultivation, and 

then '' hog down" the corn and peas. 

The seed pods ripen unevenly, neces- 
sitating gathering them by hand. For 

this reason, the plant is usually grown 

for hay, silage, or forage rather than 

for the seed. Cowpeas resemble Can- 
ada field peas in chemical composition 

but are lower in protein and higher in 

carbohydrates. They are especially valuable for hog feeding. 




Fig. 42. — Pods of cow- 
peas and soy beans. (Liv- 
ingston, Field Crop Pro- 
duction.) 



1 " Productive Horse Husbandry," p. 237. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 



185 



Soybeans are grown principally in China, but some 
varieties may be grown successfully in the corn-belt. Henry 
and Morrison ^ state that no other plant in the United States 
grown so little at this time as the soybean is so full of 
promise to agriculture, especially to animal husbandry. They 
are one of the most valu- 
able substitutes for clover 
in the corn-belt. They 
may be used as hay or 
forage, or the beans may 
be harvested and fed. 
The beans are very high 
in both protein and fat, 
containing 36.3 and 18.0 
per cent respectively. 
One part of soybeans and 
two parts of corn with 
mineral matter make a 
fairly satisfactory ration 
for hogs. They are excel- 
lent with corn for sheep. 
Fed to dairy cows, they 
have a tendency to pro- 
duce soft butter. Owing 




Fig. 43. — Root of peanut. (Livingston, 
Field Crop Production.) 



to the high value of soybeans as seed, it is doubtful if they 
can be used economically for stock feeding until their price 
is lower. 

Peanuts are very high in both protein and fat. They are 
increasing in importance as a feed for hogs in the South, 
the hogs being turned in when the peanuts are ripe and 

1 " Feeds and Feeding," p. 178. 



186 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



allowed to forage at will. They are not grown in the corn- 
belt to any extent. 

Field beans are grown principally for human food, but 
the culls and damaged beans are often available for stock 
feed in certain sections of the country. Their composition 
is very similar to that of cowpeas. They may be fed whole 

in large quantities to 
sheep, producing a soHd 
flesh of good quality. 
Better results probably 
would be obtained by 
feeding them with corn. 
For hogs, they should be 
cooked in salt water and 
fed with corn or barley, 
as they produce a soft 
pork when fed alone. 

THE OIL-BEARING SEEDS 





X y 




i 


■J^. t' 




CI. , 






r ■- ■ 




:^s^>^ 


Jl^OM 


IB 


'im^^^f^^m i^Sy^H 


■ 



Fig. 44. — A cotton plant. (Livingston, 
Field Crop Production.) 



Some plants store en- 
ergy in the seeds in the 
form of fat or oil rather 
than as starch. The oil-bearing seeds contain as much as 40 
per cent of fat in some cases. They are also quite high in pro- 
tein. Fat or oil being too valuable for use in large quantities 
as a stock feed, it usually is pressed or extracted from the seeds, 
the residue in the form of a cake or meal being used for stock 
feeding. The use of these by-products will be discussed later. 
The principal oil-bearing seeds of interest are cottonseed and 
flaxseed. According to our classification, the soy bean and pea- 
nut also fall in this class as well as in the class of the legume seeds. 



GRAINS AND SEEDS 187 

Cottonseed is obtained after the cotton has been removed 
by ginning. Formerly, cottonseed was used quite exten- 
sively as a stock feed in the South. However, owing to its 
value as the source of cottonseed oil, it is now not generally 
fed, although it is still used to a hmited extent for feeding 
steers and dairy cows. Cottonseed should not be fed to 
hogs. 

Flaxseed is also very high in oil. Being the source of 
Unseed oil, it is usually too valuable for ordinary stock 
feeding. A little ground flaxseed often may be used to ad- 
vantage in feeding skim milk calves. For ordinary stock- 
feeding, flaxseed is not as valuable as linseed oil meal, the 
residue after the removal of the oil. 



CHAPTER X 

THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 

The cereal by-products, as the name implies, consist of the 
offal and residues of the cereal grains resulting from the 
manufacture of flour, starch, meal, breakfast food, and other 
products for human consumption. They usually contain 
those parts of the grain which. are high in crude fiber, crude 
protein, and ash, and low in nitrogen-free extract. Inasmuch 
as the ordinary farm-grown rations are usually high in car- 
bohydrates and low in crude protein and mineral matter, 
many of the cereal by-products are of considerable im- 
portance to the stock feeder. 

CORN BY-PRODUCTS 

The by-products of corn are principally from the starch 
and glucose factories, from the distilleries, and from the 
hominy factories. The starch and glucose by-products 
are gluten meal, gluten feed, corn bran, and corn germ meal. 
The distillery by-products are distillers' slops and distillers' 
dried grains. The by-product from the manufacture of 
hominy is hominy meal or hominy feed. 

In the manufacture of starch and glucose,^ the com is 
first soaked in a warm, very dilute solution of sulphurous acid. 
It is then ground by being passed with water through mills 

1 Mass. (Hatch) Exp. Sta. Bui. 78. 
188 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 



189 



to carry off the substance in suspension. Degerminating 
machinery removes the germs, which are dried and crushed 



Crown 
jStarch 



Horny 

Starch 



Horny 
^Gluten 




BmbryoL 
Stem J 

iilmbryo 
Root 



/ Tip 

[Starch 



fTip 

[Cap 



Fig. 45. — Strtcture of the 



kernel. (Illinois Experiment Station.) 



between rollers, and the oil pressed out, leaving the residue 
in cakes. This is corn germ cake. The cake is usually 
ground and sold as corn germ meal or corn oil meal. After 



190 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

degermination the residue of the corn is bolted through sieves 
separating out the hull and bran, which is sometimes sold 
under the name of corn bran. The residue, consisting largely 
of starch and gluten suspended in water, is passed very slowly 
through long shallow troughs. The starch settles to the 
bottom, while the gluten floats off into receivers. The 
gluten is then dried and ground, forming gluten meal. 

Gluten meal, or '' corn-starch by-product without corn 
bran," as it is sometimes called, is one of the richest concen- 
trates in crude protein, containing 36.0 per cent. It is 
also relatively high in fat. It is mediuin in content of 
carbohydrates, but low in ash. However, only a small amount 
of gluten meal is sold on the market as such, most of it being 
mixed ^sA\\\ corn bran and sold as gluten feed. 

Gluten feed, or ^' corn-starch by-product with corn-bran," 
as it is sometimes called, consists of gluten meal and corn 
bran ground together. It is lower in protein and higher in 
crude fiber than gluten meal, due to the presence of the corn 
bran. Most of the gluten meal and corn bran is marketed 
in this form. Sometimes the water used in the separation 
of the starch and gluten is evaporated, and the soluble pro- 
teins, mineral matter, and carbohydrates, or the '' corn 
solubles," which it contains are added to the gluten feed. 

The chemical composition of gluten feed is as follows: 
water, 8.5 per cent; ash, 1.9 per cent; crude protein, 25.9 
per cent; crude fiber, 7.2 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 
53.3 per cent ; and fat, 3.2 per cent. Its net energy value 
is 79.3 therms per 100 pounds. 

For Growing Stock. — For all young animals, gluten meal 
is more satisfactory than gluten feed, inasmuch as it is less 
bulky. It should be fed with a httle linseed oil meal for 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 191 

the sake of the laxative effect of the latter. With oats, 
gluten feed makes a good concentrate for gro^^^ng cattle. 
Owing to its deficiency in mineral matter it should not be 
used in the ration of colts or growing horses. It may be 
used to advantage in the rations of lambs. Evvard/ at 
the low^a Station, found that gluten meal or corn oil meal 
was not a satisfactory supplement to corn for growing pigs. 

For Fattening Stock. — Gluten feed may be used as a 
supplement to less nitrogenous concentrates for fattening 
all classes of live stock. Under present conditions, however, 
some cheaper supplement usually may be obtained. 

For Breeding Stock. — Gluten feed often may be used to 
advantage in the ration of breeding animals if its cost will 
permit. Care should be taken that the ration is not deficient 
in mineral matter. 

For Milk Cows. — Gluten feed may be used quite exten- 
sively in the ration of the dairy cow. In fact, this is the 
principal use made of this feedingstuff . If not too expensive, 
it maj^ be used profitably to the extent of four or five pounds 
per day. Too much gluten feed has a tendency to produce 
soft butter. This may be counteracted by feeding cotton- 
seed meal with it, as the latter tends to produce hard butter. 

For Work Horses. — Gluten feed is sometimes fed to the 
horse. It has the objection that when moistened -^^th saliva 
it has a tendency to form balls in the mouth and is not 
palatable. It^hould not be fed in large quantities, but only 
as a supplement to corn or some other non-nitrogenous 
concentrate. 

Corn bran is the outer covering of the corn grain. It 
contains practically all the crude fiber found in the grain. 

• ^ Unpublished data. 



192 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Its feeding value is low and should not be confused with 
that of wheat bran. Its principal use in stock feeding is as 
a dilutent of gluten meal to form gluten feed, and as 
an adulterant of wheat bran. 

Corn oil meal, or corn germ meal consists of the germ 
of the corn after the corn oil has been partially extracted. 
It is quite high in protein, 23 per cent, and in fat, 10 per cent. 
Although it is a valuable nitrogenous concentrate, there is 
but little available on the market. It may be used, especially 
in the dairy ration, if its cost is not too great. It is lower in 
feeding value than linseed or cottonseed meal. 

Distillers' Slops and Dried Grains. — In the manufacture 
of whisky and grain alcohol, the rye or corn, as the case 
may be, is ground and heated with steam in large steel drums 
in order to thoroughly cook the starch grains. It is then cooled 
and treated with malt which contains an enzyme which changes 
part of the starch to maltose or malt sugar. The sugar is 
then converted to alcohol by the action of yeast, and the 
alcohol is distilled off, leaving behind a watery residue known 
as distillers' slops. These slops may be fed to fattening 
steers at or near the distillery. Such cattle are sold on the 
market as " distillers." Distillers' slops are also fed to 
hogs. 

In the large distilleries, however, the thicker slops are 
dried and put on the market as distillers' dried grains. They 
contain 30.9 per cent crude protein, 10.7 per cent crude fiber, 
39.2 per cent nitrogen-free extract, 10.6 per cent fat, and 
2.8 per cent mineral matter. Corn makes the best, and rye 
the poorest, distillers' grains. They are valuable especially 
as a feed for dairy cows, being superior to gluten feed. As a 
feed for horses, some authorities reckon them as equivalent 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 193 

to oats in feeding value. Relatively, they are usually cheaper 
than either oats or bran. They also may be used satis- 
factorily for fattening animals, if their price will permit. 
Owing to their fibrous nature, only small amounts can be 
utilized by the hog. Distillers' grains should always be 
used as a supplement to less nitrogenous concentrates. 

Distillers' dried grains are often sold on the market under 
a different name, such as gluten feed or some trade name, in 
order to hide their true identity, as many people would not 
buy them under their true name. 

Hominy feed, meal, or chop is a mixture of the bran 
coating, the germ, and a part of the starchy portion of the 
corn kernel obtained as a by-product in the manufacture 
of hominy for human consumption. It contains about 11 
per cent protein, 5 per cent crude fiber, 65 per cent nitrogen- 
free extract, and 7 per cent fat. It is quite similar to corn 
in chemical composition and in feeding value. How^ever, 
it is no more valuable than corn, and consequently should not 
be purchased unless it is cheaper than corn. It is especially 
valuable for fattening animals and for milk cows, but its 
use is subject to the same limitations as that of corn. 

WHEAT BY-PRODUCTS 

Most of the wheat by-products come from the manufacture 
of flour for human consumption. The principal by-products 
used in stock feeding are bran, shorts, middhngs, red dog 
flour, shipstuff, and wheat screenings. 

When wheat first enters the flour mill, it is screened, 

separating out the broken and shrunken kernels, weed seed, 

dirt, and other impurities. The screenings are often sold 

on the market as stock feed under the name of wheat screen- 
o 



194 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



ings. 'The cleaned wheat then passes through a series of 
rollers and on to bolting cloth which bolts out the finer 
particles or flour. The residue, consisting of the coarser 
particles, is divided by bolting into bran, shorts, middlings, 
and red dog flour. Ordinarily from 25 to 33 per cent of the 

weight of the wheat 
remains in the form 
of these by-prod- 
ucts. 

Bran consists of 
the three outer coats 
of the grain and 
the rich protein or 
aleurone layer just 
underneath. Some- 
times screenings are 
mixed with the 
bran, which de- 
creases its feeding 
value. Bran is 
probably used more extensively in feeding livestock than 
any other single by-product. The chemical composition 
of wheat bran is as follows : water, 10.0 per cent ; ash, 
6.2 per cent; crude protein, 16.1 per cent; crude fiber, 
10.0 per cent ; nitrogen-free extract, 53.3 per cent ; and fat, 
4.4 per cent. Its net energy value is 48.2 therms per 100 
pounds. It is fairly high in protein, high in mineral matter, 
except lime, and fair in carbohydrates and fat. In general, 
its feeding value is much higher than its chemical analysis 
indicates. It has the requisite bulk necessary to make it 
feed well with such highly concentrated feeds as corn, and it 




Fig. 46. — Section of wheat kernel. (Jordan, 
The Feeding of Animals.) 1, seed pod and seed 
coatings ; 4, gluten layer ; 5, starch cells. 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 195 

also has a slight laxative effect upon the animal which is 
much valued by feeders. It ordinarily is not used as the 
sole concentrate, but as a supplement to some more con- 
centrated feed. 

For Growing Stock. — Bran is an excellent supplementary 
feed for nearly all classes of growing stock. It should be 
remembered, however, that it is quite deficient in Hme, 
which is essential to the proper growth of the bones. Henry 
and Morrison ^ state that horses heavily fed on bran some- 
times suffer from a form of rickets, known to horsemen as 
" bran disease," which seriously affects their bones. Thus 
bran should be fed with feeds which are rich in hme, such as 
the legumes. 

For calves and growing cattle, bran and ground corn in 
the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter 
make an excellent combination of concentrates if it is not 
too expensive. It also should be used when feeding he^-vy 
feeds, as barley or rye meal. Young cattle which are being 
wintered without the use of clover, alfalfa, or other legume 
hay will make good use of two or three pounds of bran per 
day. Because of its physical effect, bran is considered a 
very valuable addition to the ration of colts. As stated pre- 
viously, it should be fed with feeds which are rich in hme. 
Bran is too bulky and fibrous to constitute a large part of 
the pig's ration. At present prices it is also entirely too 
expensive for this purpose. It may be used to advantage 
for young lambs if fed in small amounts. It is too bulky 
to be used as the major part of the concentrates. 

For Fattening Stock. — As the chemical composition and 
the energy value indicate, bran is not a fattening feed. On 

1 " Feeds and Feeding," p. 157, 



196 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

account of its beneficial physical effect, bran, if not too ex- 
pensive, may form one-half of the concentrates for fattening 
cattle during the first stages of fattening, after which it should 
be gradually decreased until only a small amount, if any, is 
being used, on account of its bulk and high content of crude 
fiber. Bran is usually too expensive to use in the ration of 
fattening animals, especially if they have clover or alfalfa hay. 

For Breeding Stock. — Both on account of its chemical 
composition and its physical effect, bran is adapted for use 
in the rations of all classes of breeding animals. Especially 
is this true when the ration is of a heavy, concentrated na- 
ture, or when no legume roughage is available. 

For Milk Cows. — Bran, owing to the protein and mineral 
matter which it contains, its laxative nature, and the bulk 
which it imparts to the ration, is particularly well adapted 
for use in the ration of the dairy cow. With a non-nitrog- 
enous roughage, bran may constitute one-half of the con- 
centrates of the ration. With a nitrogenous roughage, such 
as clover or alfalfa hay, bran need not form over one-third 
the concentrates. Bran, ground oats, and ground corn in 
equal parts make a satisfactory ration unless too expensive, 
in which case the amount of bran and oats may be decreased 
and cottonseed meal or linseed meal added to furnish pro- 
tein and mineral matter. Bran is regarded by many dairy- 
men as an essential constitutent of the ration unless good 
alfalfa hay is available. 

For Work Horses. — Bran is too bulky and contains too 
much crude fiber to be used in the ration of work horses 
except in small amounts. A bran mash seasoned with salt 
and ginger should be fed once or twice a week to horses at 
hard work in order to keep their bowels loose. 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 197 

'Shorts are the fine particles of the outer and inner bran 
separated from the coarse bran and the white, or flour mid- 
dhngs. The sweepings, dust, and ground weed seed of the 
flour mills are often added. Shorts are also known as " stand- 
ard middlings," or '^ brown middlings." 

The average chemical composition of shorts is as follows : 
water, 10.0 per cent ; crude protein, 17.8 per cent ; nitrogen- 
free extract, 55.9 per cent ; crude fiber, 7.0 per cent ; fat, 
5.0 per cent; and mineral matter, 4.3 per cent. 

Inasmuch as shorts and middlings are similar in feeding 
value, the discussion of the feeding value of middlings may- 
be accepted as also applying to shorts, if one remembers 
that shorts are considerably lower in feeding value. 

Middlings consist of the finer bran particles and some low) 
grade flour. The amount of flour is the distinguishing differ- 
ence between middlings and shorts, the former containing a 
much larger amount than the latter. Middlings are usually 
designated as '' flour " middlings, or as '' white " middlings, 
in order to distinguish them from standard middhngs or 
shorts. Inasmuch as flour or white middlings contain more 
low grade flour and less bran and sweepings than shorts or 
standard middhngs, they are considerably higher in feeding 
value and command a higher price on the market. 

The chemical composition of flour middhngs is as follows : 
water, 10.0 per cent ; crude protein, 18.8 per cent ; nitrogen- 
free extract, 59.9 per cent; crude fiber, 3.3 percent; fat, 
4.8 per cent ; and mineral matter, 3.2 per cent. 

Middlings have more starchy material, less crude fiber, a 
little more protein, and less mineral matter than bran. Like 
bran, they are deficient in calcium or lime. Their energy 
value is considerably greater than that of bran. 



198 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Middlings (and shorts) are preeminently a feed for hogs. 
When cheap enough, they may make up a large proportion 
of the rations of growing pigs and brood sows. With corn, 
they make a very satisfactory ration for fattening hogs, 
especially when they have access to pasture. Middlings 
may constitute from 25 to 50 per cent of the concentrates 
of such rations. An excess of middUngs will tend to pro- 
duce soft pork. Hogs, when fed large amounts of middlings, 
should have access to a mineral mixture to make up the 
deficiency of Hme in the ration. 

Middlings may be fed to cattle and sheep along with 
other concentrates, but usually other feeds are better for 
this purpose. Mixed with ground grain, they are often used 
for dairy cattle. They are not used for horse feeding to 
any great extent, and never should be used except in com- 
bination with other grain, as they tend to form a pasty mass 
in the stomach and cause colic. 

Red dog flour is low-grade flour usually containing the 
wheat germ. It is rich in crude protein, carbohydrates, 
and fat. It is not as high in ash as bran or middlings. It 
is adapted especially for hog feeding, being considered by 
many stockmen as even superior to middlings for this 
purpose. Consequently, it usually sells for a higher price 
than middlings. It also may be used in about the same 
manner as middlings as a part of the rations of horses, dairy 
cows, and calves. 

Until one has had some experience with shorts, middhngs, 
and red dog flour, it is often quite difficult to distinguish 
one from the others. Perhaps the best way is to taste a 
little of the feed. Red dog flour immediately rubs up into a 
fine paste on the tongue. Flour middlings rub up into a 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 199 

coarser paste, due to the ground bran in them. Shorts do 
not form a paste at all. After tasting all three of these 
feeds, one after the other, one usually has no trouble in 
distinguishing them. 

Ship stuff is a mixture of all or any of the by-products 
obtained from the milling of the wheat berry. Its feeding 
value, of course, depends upon the products which enter 
into its composition. In some localities the term shipstuff 
is used to designate middlings or shorts. 

Wheat screenings, as their name implies, consist of the 
broken and shrunken wheat kernels, weed seeds, and other 
foreign material which result from the cleaning and grading 
of wheat. Their feeding value, of course, depends largely 
upon the proportion of wheat to weed seeds and dirt. 
Screenings should always be finely ground in order to prevent 
the introduction of weeds on the farm. The screenings are 
often added to the bran and sold either as pure bran or as 
'' bran with screenings." Screenings are used also to a con- 
siderable extent in many commercial mixed feeds. 

BARLEY BY-PRODUCTS 

The principal by-products of barley are obtained from the 
breweries. They are brewers' grains (wet and dry) and malt 
sprouts. 

Brewers' Grains. — In the manufacture of beer, the barley 
grains are first soaked in warm water until they are soft. 
They are then held at a comparatively high temperature and 
allowed to sprout, during which process a considerable part 
of the starch of the grain is changed by the action of enzjnnes 
to maltose or malt sugar. After sprouting, the grains are 
quickly dried and the httle rootlets are removed. These 




Fig. 



47. — Weeds growing from seed found in a commercial feed con- 
taining screenings. (Vermont Experiment Station.) 



200 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 201 

constitute the feed, malt sprouts. The residue after the 
"rootlets are removed is known as " malt." The malt is 
extracted with water to remove the soluble sugar which is 
used as a source of the alcohol of the beer. The freshly 
extracted malt is known as '' wet brewers' grains." After 
drying they are called '' dried brewers' grains." Brewers' 
grains are relatively higher in protein than barley. 

Cattle of all ages relish brewers' grains. They rank high 
as a source of protein, containing 25.6 per cent. They may 
be fed in wet form if within a reasonable distance of the brew- 
ery and if care is taken to keep the feed-boxes tight and 
clean so that none may escape and spoil under the mangers. 
Unless proper sanitary measures are taken, however, the 
wet grains should not be used. Twenty to thirty pounds 
per day along with corn may be fed. Brewers' grains 
may be fed with profit to young growing cattle, but 
usually they cannot be fed profitably to fattening cattle 
unless they are very cheap. Sheep do not relish the wet 
grains. ' 

In the dry form they rank along with such feeds as bran 
and linseed meal for dairy cows and they are no more perish- 
able. Four or five pounds daily may be fed along with corn 
or corn meal. Instances have come to the notice of the 
author in which physicians have refused to indorse milk 
from dairies using dried brewers' grains. However, such 
prejudice is entirely unwarranted. Dried brewers' grains 
are nearly as satisfactory for horses as oats. One-third to 
one-half of the concentrates may consist of dried brewers' 
grains. On account of their high content of crude fiber, 
they are not suitable for hogs. The dried grains may be 
used in the ration of breeding ewes. 



202 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Malt Sprouts are the dried rootlets obtained from the 
barley used for the manufacture of malt. They are not 
very palatable, but they contain a considerable amount 
of crude protein, — 26 per cent, a large proportion of which 
is in the form of non-protein. They may be fed in moderate 
quantities, 2 or 3 pounds per day, to milch cows. They also 
may be used in hmited quantities in the rations of other farm 
animals. They usually are soaked in water several hours 
before feeding. They should always be fed with more 
palatable feeds. 

MISCELLANEOUS CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 

Oats By-products. — The principal by-products of oats are 
shorts, middhngs, and hulls, from the oatmeal and breakfast 
food factories, and oat clippings, obtained in the manufac- 
ture of clipped oats. 

Oat shorts consist of the seed coats of the oat grain lying 
immediately inside the hull, being a fuzzy material carrjdng 
with it considerable portions of the fine, floury part of the 
groat {i.e. the hulless oat berry) obtained in the milUng of 
rolled oats. 

Oat middlings are the floury portions of the oat groat 
obtained in the milling of rolled oats. Oat shorts and 
middhngs are quite valuable as feeds when obtainable. 
They may be used in the same manner as wheat shorts and 
middlings. 

Oat hulls, although not a concentrate, can best be dis- 
cussed here. The hulls are the outer chaffy coverings of 
the oat grains. They are quite low in digestible nutrients 
and are no more valuable for feeding than so much straw. 
Oat hulls and corn are often ground together and sold ^ as 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 203 

" corn and oat feed." They are also used in many mixed 
and patent feeds. It is often very difficult to distinguish 
between ground oats and ground oat hulls when mixed with 
other ground feeds. Consequently, the farmer should exer- 
cise great care in purchasing feeds of this kind. 

Oat dust consists of the minute, hairlike particles which 
adhere to the end of the hulless oat kernel. It is usually 
used as a constituent of commercial mixed feeds. It ranks 
between oat middUngs and oat hulls in feeding value. 

Oat clippings or clipped oat hy-product are the light, 
chaffy material broken from the ends of the hulls in the 
process of clipping, together with hulls, light, immature 
oats, and dust. Their feeding value is very low and they 
are often used as an adulterant of other feeds, and as a 
constituent of many mixed commercial feeds, especially 
molasses feeds. 

Rye By-products. — The principal by-products from rye 
are bran, shorts, and middlings, obtained in the manufacture 
of rye flour, and distillers' slops and grains, obtained in the 
manufacture of whisky and grain alcohol. 

Bran, Shorts, and Middlings. — In origin and chemical" 
composition, rye bran, shorts, and middlings closely resemble 
the corresponding by-products of wheat. However, in feed- 
ing value they are much inferior. If fed in large quantities 
to milch cows, they affect the flavor of the product. Rye 
shorts or middhngs when fed to hogs produce a soft, inferior 
quality of pork. The quantity of these by-products avail- 
able is small, owing to the small amount of rye bread 
used. Their use is becoming more and more general, 
however. In parts of Europe they occupy an important 
place as stock feeds. If used they should be purchased 



204 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



considerably more cheaply than the corresponding wheat 

by-products. 

Rye feed. — Rye bran, shorts, and middlings are often 

mixed together and marketed as rye feed. 

Distillers^ grains from rye are much inferior to those from 

corn. However, most of the grains on the market consist 

largely of corn. The 
feed should bear the 
name of the cereal 
predominating. 

Rice By-products. — 
The rice by-products 
are of considerable im- 
portance in the South, 
but of little importance 
in the corn-belt. 

Rice hulls are the 
outer chaffy coverings 
of the rice grain. Their 
feeding value is not only 
very low but they are 
dangerous to the animal, 
as they irritate the walls 

of the digestive tract. They are sometimes used in mixed 

commercial feeds. 

Rice bran is the cuticle beneath the hull. It soon be- 
comes rancid and unpalatable, but is a good feed for cattle 

and horses when not rancid. 

Rice polish is the finely powdered material obtained in 

pohshing the kernel. It has a feeding value about equal to 

corn. 




Fig. 48. — Buckwheat in bloom. (Living- 
ston, Field Crop Production.) 



THE CEREAL BY-PRODUCTS 205 

Buckwheat By-products. ^ — The by-products of buck- 
wheat are shorts and middUngs, obtained in the manu- 
facture of buckwheat flour. They are that portion of the 
buckwheat grain immediately inside of the hull after separa- 
tion from the flour. They are considerably higher in protein 
than wheat shorts and middlings. They are valuable feeds, 
especially for dairy cows and hogs. Care should be taken 
that the grdund hulls, which are worthless, are not mixed 
with them. The ground hulls are sometimes mixed with 
the middlings and sold as buckwheat bran or feed. 

1 Although buckwheat is not a cereal botanically, it is usually classed as 
such for commercial purposes. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE OIL BY-PRODUCTS 

The oil by-products are the residues from the oil-bearing 
seeds after the removal of the oil. The principal oil by-prod- 
ucts in this country are obtained from flaxseed and cotton- 
seed. Of minor importance are soybean cake, sesame cake, 
peanut cake, sunflower-seed cake, rape-seed cake, coconut 
cake, and corn-germ cake. Most of these latter are of more 
importance in Europe. 

FLAXSEED BY-PRODUCTS 

The by-products of flaxseed are '^ old process " Unseed 
oil cake or meal, '' new process " linseed oil meal, flax feed, 
flax plant by-product, and unscreened flax oil feed. 

Linseed oil cake or meal often is spoken of as simply 
oil cake or meal, or linseed cake or meal. Two methods are 
used in obtaining the oil from flaxseed. In the first, or 
*' old process " method the seeds are crushed, heated with 
steam, and the oil removed by subjecting the crushed seeds 
to an enormous pressure. After the removal of the oil by 
the pressure process, the residue is a hard, board-like cake 
about 1 inch thick, 1 foot wide, and three feet long. It 
may be sold in this form as old process Unseed cake or, as 
is more often the case, it may be ground to a meal of varying 
degrees of fineness and sold as old process Unseed meal. It is 

206 



THE OIL BY-PRODUCTS 207 

advisable to buy it in nut or pea sizes, as when sold in the 
form of a fine meal it is easily adulterated with flax screen- 
ings and when sold in the cake it is difficult to break up for 
feeding, without the use of a power grinder. 

In the second, or '' new process," method the flaxseed is 
crushed, heated with steam, and placed in large percolators. 
It is then treated with naphtha, which dissolves out the oil. 
It is again treated with steam to drive out the naphtha. It 
is then dried, sacked, and marketed as new process linseed 
meal. The first method is most commonly used in this 
country. Consequently, most of the hnseed meal on the 
American market is old process. The extraction method 
removes the oil more thoroughly than the other method. 

The average chemical composition of old process linseed 
meal is as follows : water, 8.5 per cent ; ash, 5.2 per cent ; 
crude protein, 34.3 per cent ; crude fiber, 8.5 per cent ; nitro- 
gen-free extract; 36.4 per cent; and fat, 7.1 per cent. The 
net energy value is 78.9 therms per 100 pounds. New pro- 
cess linseed meal is higher in protein, but contains only a 
small amount of fat. Although there is more protein in new 
process hnseed meal, there is but Uttle more of it digestible 
than in the old process meal. The greater amount of fat 
in the old process meal makes it more valuable than the 
new process meal for feeding purposes. 

Linseed cake or meal is one of the most valuable and use- 
ful by-products. It is not only very high in feeding value 
but, unlike cottonseed cake or meal, it is a safe and usually 
a profitable feed with any kind of animals. In addition 
to its high feeding value, it is very appetizing, has a slightly 
laxative effect, and imparts to the hair of the animals a 
glossy look indicative of thrift. As its chemical composition 



208 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

indicates, linseed meal should not be used as the sole con- 
centrate of the ration, but in connection with less nitrogenous 
concentrates. 

For Growing Stock. — Linseed meal is one of the best 
supplementary concentrates for growing animals, both on 
account of its high feeding value and its physical , effect. 
It is a very important addition to the ration of the skim- 
milk calf. For growing cattle, it may form as much as ten 
per cent of the concentrates of the ration when not too ex- 
pensive. It is also very good for colts and may be substituted 
for a part of the oats in the ration. It is usually fed to secure 
finish and bloom in fitting horses for show or sale. It may 
be fed in amounts up to one pound per day. Oil meal may 
be used for pigs, but other nitrogenous supplements, as 
middhngs and tankage, usually are preferred. It is excellent 
in the ration of young lambs, both before and after weaning. 

For Fattening Stock. — For fattening steers, two or three 
pounds per day can be given to advantage. It is often fed 
near the close of the feeding period, on account of its bene- 
ficial effect upon the appetite, digestion, and finish of the 
animal. It is used quite extensively with show cattle. 
For fattening hogs, linseed meal may be fed in small quanti- 
ties, approximating 10 to 20 per cent of the concentrates 
to good advantage. Large quantities seem to affect the 
appetite of the hog adversely. Usually tankage or middlings 
is preferred. For fattening lambs and sheep, it may be used 
to advantage up to one-third of a pound per day unless 
the ration consists of corn and clover or alfalfa hay, in 
which case its use is not profitable. 

For Breeding Stock. — Linseed meal is one of the best 
nitrogenous supplements for breeding animals of all classes. 



THE OIL BY-PRODUCTS 209 

Its laxative effect and high protein content make it valuable 
for this class of animals. 

For Milch Cows. — Up to three pounds per day, linseed 
meal will improve almost any dairy ration. An excess of 
linseed meal may affect the quality of the butter, as it tends 
to produce a soft butter. 

For Work Horses. — One-half to one pound may be fed to 
advantage to horses. McCampbell at the Kansas Experi- 
ment Station ^ found that one pound of linseed meal was 
equivalent to four pounds of bran when fed with corn, oats, 
and prairie hay. It is not necessary, however, when they 
are on pasture. This feed gives the horse a gloss and sleek- 
ness of coat which materially improves the appearance. 
It is very good to restore overworked or overfed horses to 
good condition. Some horses cannot use it, as it scours them 
too much. 

Flax feed or screenings consist of a variable mixture of 
inferior flaxseed, weed seeds, stalks, leaves, dirt, etc. Like 
all screenings, it should be finely ground to destroy the vi- 
ability of the weed seeds present. It is not recommended 
at the prices usually asked for it. It is often used as a con- 
stituent of mixed commercial feeds, and is sometimes sold 
under fancy trade names, as " flax flakes," " linomeal," etc. 

Flax plant by-product consists of flax pods, inferior flax 
seeds, and portions of the stem. It is usually used in mixed 
commercial feeds, although it is sometimes sold as " flax 
bran.'^ Its feeding value is quite low. 

Unscreened flax oil feed is the by-product resulting 
from the extraction of the oil from unscreened flaxseed. It 
is lower in feeding value than oil meal from the screened seed. 

1 Bui. 186. 



210 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

COTTONSEED BY-PRODUCTS 

The principal cottonseed by-products are cottonseed cake 
or meal, cold pressed cottonseed, cottonseed feed, cotton- 
seed hulls, and cottonseed hull bran. 

Cottonseed Cake, or Meal. — Cottonseed cake is the resi- 
due remaining after most of the hulls and hnt have been 
removed and the cottonseed have been crushed, heated, and 
the oil pressed out in a manner similar to the manufacture 
of old process Unseed meal previously described. Cotton- 
seed meal is the finely ground cake, although it is sometimes 
sold in the pea or nut size, especially in the West or where it 
is fed in the open and Uable to be blown away by the wind. 

Cottonseed meal should be a hght yellow in color. A 
dark color indicates the presence of ground hulls which often 
are used as an adulterant. This adulteration may be 
detected definitely by putting a small quantity of the meal 
in a glass tumbler, pouring hot water over it, quickly stirring, 
allowing it to settle for a few seconds, and then pouring off 
the unsettled portion. If the residue is darker in color than 
the untreated meal, ground hulls are present. If successive 
treatments intensify the dark color, the adulteration is pro- 
portionate. Wet, musty, or moldy meal should never be 
used under any conditions. 

The average chemical composition of cottonseed meal is 
as follows: water, 7.0 per cent; ash, 6.7 per cent; crude 
protein, 44.6 per cent ; crude fiber, 6.5 per cent ; nitrogen- 
free extract, 25.2 per cent ; and fat, 10.0 per cent. Its net 
energy value is 84.2 therms per 100 pounds. It is one of 
the richest feeds in protein and energy. It is also high in 
fat and ash. Cottonseed meal should be purchased on the 



THE OIL BY-PRODUCTS 211 

basis of its protein content. There are three grades of it 
on the market, viz., choice, prime, and good. Choice 
cottonseed meal contains 41 per cent or more of protein; 
prime contains 38.6 to 41 per cent; and good contains 36 
to 38.6 per cent. Cottonseed meal should not contain less 
than 36 per cent protein ; if it does, it is adulterated. 

Unlike linseed meal, cottonseed meal is not a safe feed 
to use with impunity for all classes of stock. If fed with 
discretion, however, it often makes a most profitable addi- 
tion to the ration. If fed in large amounts for long periods, 
cottonseed meal may act as a poison to the animal and, in 
many cases, cause death. It is particularly fatal to hogs. 
The nature of the poisonous principle has not yet been 
determined. It also has a costive action. Although its 
use may prove disastrous if fed carelessly, there is no reason 
why the careful feeder should not make use of this highly 
nutritious feed. 

For Growing Animals. — Although high in protein and 
mineral matter so essential to satisfactory growth, the general 
use of cottonseed meal is not recommended for this class of 
farm animals. It should not be used for calves or pigs. 
For young growing cattle, two or three pounds per day when 
not on pasture will promote growth. It is not advisable 
to use it in the rations of colts or lambs, although it is so 
used sometimes. 

For Fattening Animals. — Cottonseed meal is a very good 
nitrogenous supplement for fattening cattle. On account 
of its costive effect and high protein content, it makes an 
admirable addition to a ration which contains corn and 
corn silage. It may be used up to four or five pounds per 
day; in the South, much larger quantities are often fed. 



212 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

but in the corn-belt, it is not desirable to feed such large 
amounts unless corn is very expensive. 

As previously noted, hogs are especially susceptible to 
the poison of cottonseed meal. Although it can be fed to 
them without disastrous results, it is not advisable for the 
inexperienced feeder of the corn-belt to attempt to learn 
how, as it may prove a costly experience with the results 
not worth the risk. Recent experiments indicate that 
cottonseed meal if fed with copperas may be used by hogs 
with safety. However, this has not been proven definitely. 
There is no danger in hogs following steers which receive 
cottonseed meal in their ration. 

Cottonseed meal may be used in the rations of fattening 
lambs and sheep, especially if they are fed a non-nitrogenous 
roughage. It is not as satisfactory, however, as linseed 
meal. 

For Breeding Stock. — Although used for breeding stock 
to a certain extent, the author would not advise its extensive 
use for this class of animals. Especially is this true in the 
case of pregnant animals. When suckHng their young its use 
may be permitted to a certain extent. 

For Milk Cows. — In moderate amounts, cottonseed meal 
is a very satisfactory addition to the ration of dairy cows. 
Not over three or four pounds daily should be fed, as more 
not only may derange the digestive system, but will produce 
a hard, tallowy, poorly flavored butter. 

For Work Horses. — Gay ^ states that cottonseed meal is 
now generally recommended as a complete or partial sub- 
stitute for oats, in combination with corn, to cheapen the 
ration. Cochel, at the Pennsylvania Experiment Station,^ 

1 " Productive Horse Husbandry," p. 237. « BuI. 117. 



THE OIL BY-PRODUCTS 213 

after feeding as much as three pounds of cottonseed meal 
per day to fattening draft horses, concluded that using cotton- 
seed meal to replace oats resulted in a cheaper ration, 
a larger gain, more economical gains, and a higher finish. 
Kennedy, Robbins, and Kildee, at the Iowa Experiment 
Station,^ after comparing corn and linseed meal with corn 
and cottonseed meal for work horses, concluded that cotton- 
seed meal gave somewhat better results than linseed meal. 
The use of either resulted in a substantial lowering of the 
cost of maintaining the horses. 

Cold pressed cottonseed is the product obtained by 
subjecting the unheated, undecorticated seed {i.e. the un- 
hulled seed) to enormous pressure to remove the oil. It 
includes the entire cottonseed, less the lint and oil removed. 
It may be sold in large thin flakes, or it may be ground 
to a meal. It has a lower feeding value than cottonseed 
meal as it contains much more hulls and lint. It contains 
about 27 per cent of protein. It may be used in about the 
same ways as cottonseed meal. It is sometimes sold as 
'' caddo cake." 

Cottonseed feed is a mixture of cottonseed meal and 
ground cottonseed hulls, containing less than 36 per cent of 
protein. Its feeding value depends upon the proportion 
of cottonseed meal in it as indicated by its per cent of pro- 
tein. Usually, cottonseed feed contains about 23 per cent 
of protein. Consequently, the feeder could not afford to 
pay for it more than one half the value of choice cotton- 
seed meal. As a matter of fact, it ordinarily sells for only a 
few dollars per ton less than choice cottonseed meal. In 
general it will be more economical for the corn-belt farmer 

1 Bui. 109. 



214 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

to buy the better grades of cottonseed meal at a higher price, 
rather than pay the freight on the hulls, which have Uttle 
value as a feed. 

Cottonseed hulls are an important by-product in the 
South, where they are used as a roughage. They are Httle 
fed in the corn-belt except as they are used as an adulterant 
of cottonseed meal. They often may be used economically 
as a part of the roughage of the ration when hay is very 
expensive. Their feeding value is somewhat less than that 
of straw. 

Cottonseed hull bran consists of the hulls, free from 
lint and finely ground. The feeding value is about the 
same as that of ordinary cottonseed hulls. 

MISCELLANEOUS OIL BY-PRODUCTS 

Peanut cake, or meal is the residue after the extraction 
of the oil from the peanut. Inasmuch as it contains about 
48 per cent of crude protein when hulled, it is very valuable 
as a nitrogenous supplement. It is used Uttle in this country, 
but is used extensively in Europe. 

Soybean cake, or meal is the residue after the extraction 
of the oil from soybeans. It contains about 43 per cent of 
protein and is as valuable for feeding as cottonseed meal. 
It is imported from China and Japan and used to a consider- 
able extent along the Pacific coast, particularly as a feed 
for dairy cows and for poultry, although it may be used for 
the other farm animals. It is not used to any extent in the 
East and Middle West. 

Coconut cake, or meal is the residue remaining after 
extraction of the oil from the dried meat of the coconut. 
It is used some in the East but more extensively on the Pacific 



THE OIL BY-PRODUCTS 215 

coast. It contains 20 per cent or more of protein. It is a 
very palatable feed and, if cheap enough in price, may be used 
for all classes of farm animals. It is especially recommended 
for dairy cows, as it produces a fine butter of considerable 
firmness. It has the disadvantage of becoming rancid in 
a short time in warm weather. 

Sunflower seed cake is the residue remaining after 
extraction of the oil from the sunflower seed. It is used 
mostly in Russia. It contains about 39 per cent of protein. 

Rape seed cake is the residue remaining after extraction 
of the oil from rape seed. It is quite high in protein, 33 
per cent. 

Sesame seed cake is the residue after extraction of the 
oil from the sesame seed. Like the other oil by-products it 
is high in protein, 40 per cent. 

Corn oil meal, or germ meal has already been discussed 
under ^' Corn By-products." 

Peanut hulls are sometimes ground and sold as '^peanut 
bran," or used as a constituent of mixed commercial feeds. 
Their feeding value is lower than that of straw. 



CHAPTER XII 
THE PACKINGHOUSE BY-PRODUCTS 

The packinghouse by-products produced in the big 
slaughter houses, which are of use for feeding purposes, con- 
sist of blood, bone, and meat scraps. These are worked into 
various forms, but those of the most importance to the 
stock feeder are tankage or meat meal, dried blood (blood 
meal, blood flour, etc.), meat scraps, cracklings, and ground 
bone or bone meal. 

Tankage and meat meal are the same thing. Some 
manufacturers, who are equipped to make up a special meat 
product of this character for feeding purposes, market 
their product under one name and some under another. In 
the main essentials there is no difference between tankage, 
which for feeding purposes usually is designated as ''Digester 
Tankage," and meat meal. In fact, some firms sell it as 
'' Meat Meal Digester Tankage." 

A proper feeding tankage is made from meat trimmings, 
which are thoroughly cooked for several hours in pressure 
tanks under 50 to 60 pounds hve steam pressure. This cook- 
ing, together with a subsequent pressing of the material, re- 
moves the principal part of the grease, after which the residue 
is thoroughly dried under high heat in dryers especially de- 
signed for that purpose. After being dried, this selected 
material is ground and screened over special equipment 
designed to put it in the best possible mechanical condition 

216 



THE PACKINGHOUSE BY-PRODUCTS 217 

for feeding purposes. Of course, the high heat to which 
tankage is subjected both during cooking and drying steriUzes 
it completely. Thus, there is no danger of transmitting dis- 
ease to a healthy animal through feeding properly prepared 
tankage, or meat meal. No condemned carcasses are used 
in the manufacture of the higher grades of these feeds, al- 
though they are often used in the lower grades which are 
usually used for fertihzer. Sometimes the lower grades are 
sold for feeding purposes. Their use, however, is not ad- 
visable. Peat and hair are sometimes used to adulterate 
the lower grades of tankage. 

Tankage usually is sold on a guarantee that the protein 
content will be not less than 60 per cent, which, of course, is 
equivalent to 1200 pounds of protein per ton. Some tankages 
are sold on a 50 per cent guarantee, likewise on a 40 per cent 
guarantee, but the more highly concentrated goods are to be 
recommended, inasmuch as the expenses per ton for prepara- 
tion, bagging, shipping, and hauhng to the farm are the same 
in the case of a 40 per cent protein tankage as in the case of a 
60 per cent protein tankage. Consequently the more highly 
concentrated goods figure much lower per unit of protein de- 
livered on the farm. In addition to the protein, these feeding 
tankages also contain about 10 per cent of fat, from lOtolS 
per cent of phosphates, and about 7 per cent of carbohydrates. 
These supplementary constituents are very important, but 
as a feeding tankage is bought principally on account of its 
protein value, proper consideration should be given to the 
amount of protein and the quality of that protein when 
purchasing a tankage for feeding purposes. Particular at- 
tention should be given to the percentage of crude fiber, as 
this is quite variable. If tankage contains much over 6 per 



218 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

cent of crude fiber, it is an indication that it has been 
adulterated with peat. 

The principal use of tankage and meat meal is as a supple- 
ment to corn for growing and fattening hogs. It not only 
supplies the protein, but also the mineral matter in which 
corn is deficient. Furthermore the protein of tankage is 
especially rich in the amino acids in which corn is deficient. 
For supplementing corn it is usually cheaper per pound of 
protein and also more efficient than middlings or oil meal. 
Usually it is not profitable to feed more than 10 per cent 
of tankage in the ration. The amount fed should depend 
upon the amount of protein in the tankage, and upon the 
protein requirement of the hogs. Tankage and meat meal 
are more valuable adjuncts to the corn ration when the hogs 
are fed in dry lot than when they have access to pasture. It 
should be carefully mixed with the other feed to get an 
equal distribution so that all the animals in the feed lot 
will get an equal amount. Tankage will keep indefinitely 
if it is stored in a dry place. It may spoil if allowed to soak 
in the slop too long. 

In Europe, meat meal is sometimes fed in small quantities 
to horses, cattle, and sheep. It has not been used in this 
country to any extent for animals other than hogs. 

Blood meal, or dried blood is blood from slaughtered 
animals, dried and cooked. It is the highest in protein of 
any feedingstuff, containing about 85 per cent. It is quite 
low in mineral matter as compared with tankage. It is 
used principally for pigs as a supplement to corn. Such 
animals should have free access to some mineral mixture. 
Pigs at 3 months old may be given a tablespoonful daily 
and younger pigs in proportion, although tankage is usually 



THE PACKINGHOUSE BY-PRODUCTS 219 

more economical for hog feeding, as blood meal is quite 
expensive. A teaspoonful may be fed in the milk of the 
skim milk calf at weaning and this amount gradually in- 
creased. It will have a tendency to prevent scours. It also 
has been fed to lambs. 

Blood flour is finely ground blood meal. There is no 
difference in chemical composition or in feeding value, 
although blood flour usually sells for more on the market. 

Meat scraps consist largely of beef trimmings which are 
cooked in large open vats in the presence of grease for the 
purpose of Uberating all the grease possible. The resulting 
cracklings are then subjected to heavy pressure to remove the 
grease and water. The cakes are then ground and bagged. 
Meat scraps contain about 50 per cent protein. They are 
used for poultry feeding. 

Cracklings are the residues left from the manufacture of 
lard and tallow. Although they are not regularly listed on 
the market as a feedingstuff, they often may be obtained 
from local slaughter houses at a low price. They are as 
high in crude protein as tankage and contain considerably 
more fat. Digestion experiments by Dietrich and Grindley 
at the Illinois Experiment Station ^ showed that crackhngs 
were considerably more digestible than tankage. For hogs, 
good crackhngs should be at least as valuable as tankage. 
They are also very good for poultry. 

Raw bone meal, as the name implies, consists of ground 
bone. It is made from clean, sound bones from healthy 
animals. It is high in protein and very high in ash. It is 
used especially for hogs and poultry to furnish additional 
mineral matter to the ration. A little may be given to other 

1 Bui. 170. 



220 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

classes of farm animals if they show a craving for mineral 
matter. 

A distinction should be made between raw bone meal, 
which is used for feeding purposes, and steamed bone, which 
is used for fertilizer. Junk bones and bones from condemned 
animals are often used in the manufacture of bone meal for 
fertilizer. Also they are steamed to remove the protein 
substances which are made up into glue. Thus there is no 
comparison between the two for feeding purposes. 



CHAPTER XIII 
MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 

Under the head of miscellaneous concentrates may be 
classed proprietary or patent preparations, commercial 
mixed feeds, and such other concentrates as do not logically 
fall into any of the other classes as previously discussed. 

Proprietary preparations, or patent '^ stockfoods," as they 
are often called, vary in constitution from concentrated 
medicines to bulky feed with corn meal, screenings, bran, 
linseed meal, cottonseed meal, ground corn cobs, oat hulls, 
peat, etc., as their chief constituents. They also usually con- 
tain salt, spices, and drugs, which impart a more or less 
desirable odor and flavor to the product. The most un- 
warranted claims are often made by the manufacturers for 
their products and, through judicious advertising in the 
farm papers, enormous quantities are sold at prices far 
above the true value of the product. There are few farmers 
who have not used patent stockfoods at some time or 
other. It is claimed by many manufacturers that the use 
of their " food " will increase the digestibility of the ration, 
decrease the cost of gains, prevent and cure disease, etc. 
As a matter of'fact, however, practically all experiments are 
unanimous in the conclusion that patent stockfoods do not 
increase the digestibihty but, on the other hand, sometimes 
decrease it ; they increase the cost of gains ; and they usually 
have no effect upon the health of the animal. The actual 
.• 221 



222 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

feeding value of such preparations is certainly no greater 
than a mixture of corn meal, oat hulls, linseed meal, or 
whatever feedingstuffs make up the stockfood. Inasmuch 
as the price of such preparations is usually from $100 to 
$125 per ton, it is evident that when it comes to buying 
commercial feeds, the farmer should invest in bran, linseed 
meal, middhngs, or some other standard product in which 
he is much more hable to get the worth of his money. Stock- 
foods may act as a stimulant to the appetite, but animals 
which are properly managed do not need stimulants to their 
appetites. For the man who thinks he must have a stimu- 
lant or tonic in the ration, the Iowa Station ^ recommends 
the following prescription : 

powdered gentian 1 lb. 

powdered ginger 1 lb. 

fenugreek 5 lb. 

common salt 10 lb. 

bran 50 lb. 

linseed meal 50 lb. 

Hills, Jones, and Hollister at the Vermont Station ^ recom- 
mend the following : 

ground gentian 1 lb. 

ground ginger \ lb. 

powdered saltpeter \ lb. 

powdered iron sulphate \ lb. 

Mix and give one tablespoonful in the feed every day for 
ten days ; omit for three days, and then feed daily for ten 
days. 

1 Bui. 87. 2 Bui. 104. 



ilb, 


lib, 


ilb, 


ilb. 


ilb. 


ilb. 


ilb. 


3 1b. 


lilb. 


lilb. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 223 

The following mixture is also recommended by the Ver- 
mont Station : 

fenugreek 

ginger 

powdered gentian 

powdered sulphur 

potassium nitrate 

resin 

cayenne pepper 

gi'ound flaxseed 

powdered charcoal 

common salt 

wheat bran 6 lb. 

The farmer, with the aid of a druggist, may prepare any of 
these much more cheaply than he can buy such preparations 
on the market. 

There are a few patent medicines on the market which 
have some value, but the farmer should use much judgment 
in buying them, as many are practically worthless. If an 
animal is sick or needs '' conditioning," one should have a 
competent veterinarian prescribe for it, rather than give it 
a " cure-all " which, as likely as not, consists principally of 
ground oat hulls, corn cobs, ginger, pepper, and epsom salts. 

Commercial Mixed Feeds. — There are mixed, prepared, 
or ^' balanced " feeds on the market without number. In 
many cases, these '' balanced " feeds consist of mixtures of 
standard feedingstuffs, such as ground corn, ground oats, 
gluten feed, middlings, Unseed meal, etc. However, often 
times these mixtures are composed of ground corn cobs, corn 
bran, oat hulls, oat cHppings, screenings, and other products 



224 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



low in feeding value. Thus such feeds should be purchased 
only on a guaranteed analysis either from the manufacturer 
or from the state authority having in charge the regulation 
and inspection of commercial feedingstuffs. Many states 
now have laws requiring that the minimum percentages of 
crude protein and fat, and the maximum percentage of crude 
fiber be printed on the container, or on an attached label. If 
the feed is sold in bulk the dealer is usually required to furnish 
a guaranteed analysis from the state authorities. Many 
states require also that the ingredients making up the feed be 
printed on the bag or label. Thus wheat bran which contains 
ground screenings must be designated as '' bran with screen- 
ings." Having the chemical analysis of the feed, the pur- 
chaser should compare it with the average chemical analysis 
of similar feeds as given in Table 28. If the feed in question is 
much lower in crude protein and higher in crude fiber than the . 
average, it indicates that the feed is low-grade or adulterated/^ 
The Texas Experiment Station ^ suggests that the follow- 
ing standards be followed in buying commercial feedingstuffs : 



Name of Feedstuff 



Crude 
Protein 

NOT LESS 
THAN 

PerCent 



Crude 

Fat not 

less 

than 

PerCent 



Nitro- 
gen-Free 
Extract 

NOT LESS 

than 
PerCent 



Crude 
Fiber 

NOT MORE 

than 
PerCent 



Alfalfa Meal . . . 
Barley Chops . . 
Beet Molasses . . 
Beet Pulp .... 
Blood, dried . 
Brewers' Grain, dried 
Corn Bran . . . 
Corn Chops . . . 



13.50 

11.00 

9.00 

0.75 

84.00 

24.00 

9.00 

9.50 



1.50 
1.50 



2.50 
6.00 
5.00 
3.50 



36.00 

65.00 

59.00 

6.00 

40.00 
63.00 
70.00 



30.00 
6.00 

2.50 

18.00 

10.00 

3.00 



Bui. 177. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRA TES 



225 



Name of Feedstuff 



Corn Cob 

Corn Feed Meal 

Corn, Ear Chops 

Corn, Ear Chops with Shuck . 

Corn Germ Meal 

Cottonseed Cake 

Cottonseed Chops 

Cottonseed, cold pressed 
Cottonseed, cold pressed (ground) 

Cottonseed Hulls 

Cottonseed Meal 

Feterita Chops 

Feterita Head Chops .... 

Hominy Feed 

Kafir Chops 

Kafir Head Chops 

Linseed Meal, new process . 
Linseed Meal, old process . 

Meat Scraps 

Meat Meal 

Millet Seed 

Milo Chops 

Milo Head Chops 

Molasses, blackstrap .... 

Oats, ground 

Oat Hulls 

Peanut Cake, cold pressed . . 

Peanut Meal 

Rice Bran 

Rice Polish 

Rice, ground rough .... 

Rice Hulls . ". 

Rye Chops 

Sorgo Chops 

Sunflower Seed 

Wheat Bran 

Wheat Chops 

Wheat Mixed Feed .... 
Wheat Shorts, standard . 



Crude 
Protein 

NOT LESS 
THAN 

PerCent 



2.00 

9.00 

8.00 

7.75 

10.00 

44.00 

23.00 

26.00 

26.00 

3.00 

44.00 

11.00 

10.00 

9.00 

10.50 

9.50 

33.00 

32.00 

65.00 

65.00 

11.00 

10.00 

9.75 

2.40 

11.00 

3.00 

30.00 

44.00 

12.00 

12.00 

7.00 

3.00 

10.00 

9.50 

16.00 

15.00 

15.00 

16.00 

17.00 



Crude 
Fat NOT 

LESS 
THAN 

PerCent 



Nitro- 
gen-Free 
Extract 
NOT less 

than 
PerCent 



.50 
4.00 
3.00 
2.75 
3.50 
7.50 
20.00 
7.00 
7.00 
.25 
7.50 
2.50 
2.50 
6.00 
2.75 
2.50 
3.00 
7.50 
13.00 
13.00 
4.00 
2.50 
2.40 

4.00 
1.00 

10.00 
7.50 

11.00 
7.00 
1.75 
.50 
1.50 
3.00 

21.00 
3.50 
2.00 
3.60 
3.80 



Crude 
Fiber 

NOT MORE 

than 
PerCent 



54.00 
67.00 
64.00 
62.00 
66.00 
24.00 
25.00 
28.00 
28.00 
28.00 
24.00 
69.00 
64.00 
60.00 
69.50 
65.00 
38.00 
35.00 
2.50 
2.50 
57.00 
71.00 
65.00 
65.00 
58.00 
51.00 
23.00 
23.00 
42.00 
60.00 
63.00 
37.00 
72.00 
69.00 
21.00 
54.00 
65.00 
55.00 
60.00 



226 PRIXCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

All buyers of commercial feedingstuffs should familiarize 
themselves with their state laws relative to the sale of 
commercial feedingstuffs and make good use of the bulletins, 
etc., published by the state authorities having the regulation 
in charge. 

Even if the '' balanced " mixed feeds offered by the dealer 
are composed of pure, sound feeds it is usually not profitable 
to buy them. Carbohydrates can be raised more cheaply on 
the corn-belt farms than any other place in the United States. 
What the corn-belt feeder lacks is protein, and when he buys 
any considerable amount of carbohydrates as he does when 
buying a balanced mixed feed, he buys a nutrient of which he 
already has an abundant supply in his farm feeds. Also he 
pays the freight both ways, the elevator man's profit, the 
commission man's profit, the manufacturer's profit, and the 
dealer's profit. 

So, under ordinary conditions, corn-belt feeders should 
buy only nitrogenous feeds, should insist on having a stand- 
ard product, and should ask for the guaranteed analysis 
of the feed. 

Oftentimes there are different grades of the same feeds 
on the market. Thus one may purchase cottonseed meal 
containing 20 to 45 per cent of protein, or tankage containing 
30 to 60 per cent of protein. Almost invariably it is more 
economical to purchase the best grades rather than the poorer 
ones, as it will not be profitable to pay freight on a lot of 
cottonseed hulls or peat. 

In most cases it will pay the farmer to buy standard 
feedingstuffs and mix his own rations, as he usually can mix 
them as cheaply as the manufacturer, besides having the 
assurance of knowing exactly for what he is paying. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 227 

Molasses. — There are three kinds of low-grade molasses 
which are used for stockfeeding, beet molasses, cane molasses, 
and corn molasses. 

Beet molasses is a by-product from the manufacture of 
sugar from sugar beets. It contains about 60 per cent of 
carbohydrates, largely in the form of sugar. Used in small 
amounts it is about three-fourths as valuable for feeding 
as corn. In large amounts it is very laxative or even purga- 
tive. Not over a few pounds should be fed daily. Beet 
molasses is not especially palatable, but has a bitter, alkaline 
taste. It is usually diluted with water and sprinkled over 
other feeds. Beet molasses is largely used in the manufacture 
of '' molasses feeds." 

Cane molasses or blackstrap is a by-product from the 
manufacture of sugar from sugar cane. It is a thick, black 
molasses, which has a pleasant odor and a sweet taste. It is 
very palatable, much relished, and is higher in feeding value 
than beet molasses. Like corn, it is high in carbohydrates 
and low in protein. It may be used for all classes of farm 
animals. In the North, it is usually used as an appetizer, 
or it is diluted with water and sprinkled over unpalatable 
and inferior feeds in order to increase their consumption. 
Not over 3 pounds per day should be fed to horses, fattening 
cattle, and milch cows. It may be fed to hogs in their slop. 
Unlike beet molasses, it is costive in action. It is used 
extensively in -molasses feeds. 

Corn molasses is obtained in the manufacture of corn 
sugar just in the same way that beet and cane molasses are 
obtained in the manufacture of beet and cane sugar. It con- 
tains only about 20 per cent of water. In feeding it should 
be at least as valuable as cane molasses. 



228 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Molasses Feeds. — Different feedingstuffs are often 
sweetened with molasses, dried, and sold under various 
trade names. Although some of these mixtures are good, 
often the molasses is used with material such as ground alfalfa 
or clover chaff, oat dust, oat chppings, screenings, peanut 
hulls, and other substances which have Httle or no feeding 
value. The use of molasses provides one of the best means 
possible for disguising substances which are low in nutritive 
value. It has been found that mixing beet molasses with 
peat or sphagnum moss greatly improves the palatabiUty 
and neutrahzes the alkahnity of the molasses. However, 
the peat does not add anything to the nutritive value, al- 
though it is quite high in nitrogen, because it is practically 
indigestible. 

Usually the farmer cannot afford to buy such feeds at the 
high prices ordinarily asked for them. In general, it will 
pay the farmer to prepare his molasses mixtures at home, 
thereby utilizing the waste roughages of the farm, and not 
paying a fancy price for another man's low-grade roughage. 

Beet pulp is a by product of the beet sugar factories. It is 
the residue after the extraction of a large part of the sugar 
of the beet. In the wet form, it consists of about 90 per cent 
water. In regions where it can be obtained cheaply, it may 
be fed with profit in either the wet or dry form to dairy cows, 
fattening steers, or fattening sheep. Souring does not 
decrease the value of the wet pulp. In fact, it is better 
reHshed this way. The dried beet pulp is only a Httle 
below corn meal in nutritive value. It is especially valuable 
for dairy cows and fattening cattle when properly supple- 
mented by nitrogenous concentrates. However, it should 
not be used unless cheaper than corn. When fed to dairy 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 229 

COWS it is best to soak it in two or three times its weight of 
water, thereby providing a valuable succulent feed. It is often 
sweetened with molasses and sold under various trade names. 

Salvage grain is grain which has been damaged in ware- 
house fires by fire, smoke, or water. It may consist of practi- 
cally any grain, or it may be made up of a mixture of various 
grains. It sometimes contains considerable weed seed. In 
general, salvage grain has a fairly high feeding value for all 
classes of farm animals, though it depends largely upon the 
grains entering into its composition, and upon the extent of 
the damage by fire and water. Occasionally such feeds are 
made available to the farmer by local elevator fires at a very 
low price and, in such cases, he should make use of them. It 
usually will not pay him to buy salvage on the market, as 
the price is often as much as the price of the undamaged grain. 

Skim milk is relatively high in protein and mineral matter. 
It is preeminently a feed for hogs. For young pigs it is 
probably the best supplementary feed. It is also good as a 
supplement to corn for fattening hogs. However, too much 
skim milk should not be fed. Weanling pigs should be 
started out on not more than 3 pounds of skim milk per pound 
of dry concentrates fed. Later the milk should be reduced 
to 2 pounds per pound of dry concentrates. When properly 
combined with concentrates, 5 to 6 pounds of skim milk 
are equal in feecUng value to 1 pound of corn. Sweet milk 
is no better than sour milk, except that the former is prefer- 
able in the case of young pigs. Skim milk may be used also 
for calves if carefully fed and properly supplemented. 

Buttermilk has about the same composition and the same 
feeding value for pigs as skim milk. If allowed to ferment 
in dirty tank§ it may be dangerous. 



230 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Whey has about half the feeding value for hogs as skim 
milk. 

Cocoa shells are the hard, outside coating or bran of the 
cocoa bean. They are dark brown in appearance and brittle 
in texture. They contain about 15 per cent of protein and 
about the same amount of crude fiber. In Europe they are 
used in the rations of horses and cattle and as an adulterant 
for oil cakes. They are just beginning to be used as a feed in 
this country. Liridsey ^ rates them as having not more than 
one-half the feeding value of corn meal. He states that 
they are best suited for use in the ration of dairy cows. 
They should be ground and 1 to 3 pounds daily should 
be fed. 

Tin Plate By-product. — In the manufacture of tin plate 
after the plate has been put through the tin bath it goes into 
a bath of palm oil, then it is taken out and the excess oil 
is removed by means of wheat midcUings, which are used over 
and over again to absorb the oil and also to polish the plate. 
After these middhngs have served their purpose, the sHvers 
of iron and tin are removed and the middlings with the ab- 
sorbed palm oil are sold as tin plate by-product. Sometimes 
peanut meal is used in place of wheat middhngs. The feeding 
value should be at least as great as that of ordinary wheat 
middlings. 

Vegetable Meal. — Recently a process has been perfected 
by means of which garbage is dried, the oil removed, and the 
residue ground and used for stockfeeding. In the process 
of drying and removing the oil, the material is steriUzed 
by heat. Inasmuch as no experiments have yet been re- 
ported upon this material we are unable to say anything 

1 Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 158. 



MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES 231 

as to its nutritive value. It ranges from 19 to 30 per cent 
in protein, depending largely upon its ingredients. 

Yeast or vinegar dried grains are the dried residue from 
the mixture of cereals, malt and malt sprouts (sometimes 
cottonseed meal), obtained in the manufacture of yeast or 
vinegar. They consist of corn or corn and rye, from which 
most of the starch has been extracted, together with malt 
added during the manufacturing process to change the starch 
to sugars, and malt sprouts (sometimes cottonseed meal), 
added during the manufacturing process to aid in filtering 
the residue from the wort and serve as a source of food supply 
for the yeast. They are probably similar to dried distillers' 
grains in feeding value. 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE HAYS 

Hay consists of the entire dried plant of the fine-stemmed 
grasses or of the legumes. Ordinarily the plant is cut at 
such times as to get the greatest amount of digestible nu- 
trients and the least amount of crude fiber, and allowed to 
dry or cure in the sun. The curing process should not take 
place too rapidly or it will not have the pleasant aroma which 
well-cured hay should have. It will also be more brittle 
and more of the valuable leaves will be lost in putting it up. 

Brown hay is made by stacking the hay when only partial- 
ly cured. On account of the large amount of water which 
it contains, it undergoes fermentation with the production 
of considerable heat, which discolors or may even char the 
hay. The feeding value of brown hay is less than that of 
ordinary hay. However, it usually is very palatable and 
much relished by stock. It is commonly prepared in regions 
where cHmatic conditions make it difficult to thoroughly 
cure the hay. 

Hay may be divided into two subclasses, the legume hays 
and the grass hays. 

THE LEGUME HAYS 

The most important legume hays are red clover and alfalfa. 
Of less importance are mammoth clover, alsike clover, sweet 

232 



THE HAYS 



233 




234 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



clover, crimson clover, Japan clover, velvet bean, peanut, 
beggar weed, Canadian field pea, cowpea, soybean, and the 
vetches. The legume hays are distinguished from the grass 
hays by their high content of protein and ash. They also 
usually contain more ether extract. On account of their 

relatively high content 
of protein and mineral 
matter, they are par- 
ticularly valuable in 
stockf ceding. 

Red clover hay is or- 
dinarily spoken of in 
the corn-belt as *' clover 
hay." It is the stand- 
ard legume hay crop of 
the United States and 
Canada. It is grown 
extensively in the corn- 
belt as it fits in well 
with the ordinary crop 
rotations. 

The average chemi- 
cal composition of red 
clover hay is as fol- 
lows : water, 15.0 per cent; ash, 7.7 per cent; crude pro- 
tein, 13.3 per cent ; crude fiber, 24.3 per cent ; nitrogen- 
free extract, 37.2 per cent ; and fat, 2.5 per cent. • Its net 
energy value is 34.7 therms per 100 pounds. As the com- 
position indicates, it is relatively high in muscle-building 
constitutents. The feeding value of clover hay depends to 
a large extent upon the time of cutting and the method of 




Fig. 50. 



Red clover. (Livingston, Field 
Crop Production.) 



THE HAYS 



235 



curing. If the hay is cut too early it will not contain enough 
nutrients, while if it is cut too late it will contain more crude 
fiber and be less digestible. Clover should be cut when 
approximately one-third of the heads have turned brown. 
If the hay is leached by rain a large part of the more digestible 
portions are washed out. If it is put up too green, it will 
brown, mold, or fire ; while if it is put up too dry, the leaves, 




Fig. 51. 



Production of clover in the United States. One dot represents 
10,000 tons. (Hitchcock, A Text-Book of Grasses.) 



which contain most of the nutriment, will be shattered off 
and lost. 

For Growing Stock. — Due to its high content of crude 
protein and mineral matter, clover hay is one of the best 
roughages for growing stock. 

For calves and growing cattle, clover hay is second only 
to alfalfa as a roughage. Owing to its bulkiness, concen- 
trates should be fed along with it for quick growth, but for 
wintering stock cattle little or no other feed is necessary. 



236 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Clover hay, if bright, clean', and well-cured, may be used in 
limited amounts for colts and young horses. Mixed hay 
(clover and timothy) is also very good. Care should be 
taken not to feed dirty, dusty clover hay, as the dust may 
cause serious trouble by irritating the lungs of the horse. 
Clover hay is too bulky to use very extensively for growing 
pigs. It is excellent for lambs. In fact, it is almost in- 
dispensable unless alfalfa hay is available. 

For Fattening Stock. — Clover hay may furnish a large 
part of the protein in the ration of the fattening animal. 
Especially is this true in the corn-belt, where corn is the 
principal concentrate used by the feeder. 

For fattening cattle, clover hay, corn, and 2 to 4 pounds 
of Unseed or cottonseed meal make an excellent combi- 
nation. Unless silage is available, it is quite difficult to 
formulate a satisfactory ration for fattening cattle without 
including clover or alfalfa hay. Clover hay is too bulky for 
use with fattening hogs. When clover hay furnishes the 
entire roughage for fattening lambs or sheep, corn is the only 
concentrate necessary to produce good gains. The addition 
of a httle linseed or cottonseed meal may increase the gains 
somewhat, but usually not enough to pay for the increased 
cost of the ration. 

For Breeding Stock. — Owing to its high content of pro- 
tein and mineral matter, clover hay makes a good roughage 
for all classes of breeding animals. 

Breeding cows may be maintained through the winter 
on little or no concentrates if they have plenty of clover hay. 
The same precautions should be taken in feeding it to brood 
mares as have been mentioned in connection with its use 
for colts. If these precautions are taken, it is quite satis- 



THE HAYS 



237 



factory. In winter it may be fed in limited amounts to 
brood sows when they are not suckHng a litter. For breed- 
ing ewes, good clover hay with little or no grain is sufficient 
to maintain them until within a few weeks of the lambing 
season. 

For Milk Cows. — Clover hay furnishes a large amount 
uf the crude protein and ash so essential to milk production. 
When it forms the sole rough- 
age of dairy cows, as much as 
half of the concentrates may 
consist of corn. If a non-ni- 
trogenous roughage is used, 
less corn and more nitroge- 
nous concentrates must be fed. 
Either clover or alfalfa hay is 
almost essential for economi- 
cal milk production. 

For Work Horses. — Clover 
hay is coming to be more gen- 
erally fed to horses. When 
of good quahty it may be used 
together with timothy hay for 

work horses. It should be of good quality, otherwise it will 
be too stemy and the dust will cause harm. 

Alfalfa hay is probably the most valuable roughage grown. 
Although it is the principal hay of many of the semi-arid 
states of the West, alfalfa is not yet generally grown in the 
corn-belt. It is, however, becoming more extensively grown 
and it has its place on every corn-belt stock-farm. It has 
the advantage over clover of being more resistant to drought, 
of yielding better, and of having a higher feeding value. 




Fig. 52. — An alfalfa plant. (Liv- 
ingston, Field Crop Production.) 



238 PBIXCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




THE HAYS 



239 




Clover on the other hand is much easier to start and much 
easier to cure. 

The average chemical composition of alfalfa hay is as 
follows: water, 8.1 per cent; ash, 9.1 per cent; crude pro- 
tein, 14.7 per cent ; crude fiber, 28.4 per cent ; nitrogen-free 
extract, 35.8 per cent ; and fat, 1.9 per cent. Its net energy 
value is 34.4 therms per 100 pounds. The feeding value of 
alfalfa hay depends to a large extent upon the quality. 
Good, well-cured alfalfa 
hay has a feeding value 
much greater than clover 
ha}'. Poorly cured al- 
falfa ha}' may have a 
feeding value consider- 
ably less. Therefore, 
considerable care must 
be exercised in the curing 
of alfalfa hay. If it is 
allowed to become dry and brittle before it is taken in, a 
large part of the leaves, which contain much of the nutritive 
value, \sA\\ shatter off. On the other hand, if it is taken in 
too green, it will heat and mold, not only greatly decreasing 
its value as a feed, but also making the stack or mow liable 
to fire from spontaneous combustion. The first and last 
cuttings are especially difficult to cure. 

For Growing Stock. — 0\\ing to its high content of protein 
and mineral matter, its palataVjihty, and its general physical 
condition, well-cured alfalfa hay is the prime dry roughage 
for practically all gro^^ing animals. 

Young cattle may he wintered on alfalfa hay \^'ith no 
concentrates and make a fair growth. Colts and young 



Fig. 54. — Arrangement of leaflets of 
alfalfa and clover, (Livingston, Field 
Crop Production.; 



240 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

horses may utilize considerable alfalfa by feeding timothy 
hay with it. Alfalfa leaves, or the entire plant fed whole, 
chopped, or ground may be utihzed to advantage as a supple- 
ment to corn for growing pigs. It is the best roughage avail- 
able for lambs. 

For Fattening Stock. — Alfalfa hay is very good for all 
fattening stock except hogs. It furnishes a large part of 
the protein which otherwise would have to be furnished by 
expensive concentrates. 

Only a small amount of nitrogenous concentrates is needed 
in a ration of corn and alfalfa hay for fattening cattle. Its 
use also materially decreases the amount of concentrates 
needed. Only small amounts of alfalfa hay should be used 
in the rations of fattening hogs, owing to their inability to 
handle large quantities of bulky feeds. It will usually pay 
to buy some less bulky nitrogenous concentrate as a supple- 
ment to corn for hogs. It is difficult to improve a ration of 
corn and alfalfa hay for fattening lambs or sheep. Alfalfa 
hay may be used quite extensively in the rations of horses 
which are being fattened for the market. 

For Breeding Stock. — Alfalfa hay is very good for breeding 
animals, not only on account of its chemical composition, 
but also on account of its laxative effect. 

Breeding cows which have free access to alfalfa hay need 
little or no grain during the winter. If not dusty, it is very 
suitable for brood mares. However, not only because of 
its cost but also because of its high protein content and laxa- 
tive nature it is usually fed with some other roughage. It 
may be fed from racks to brood sows with very good results. 
Breeding ewes may be successfully wintered up until a few 
weeks of lambing time on alfalfa hay alone. 



THE HAYS 



241 



For Milk Cows. — Alfalfa hay may furnish 60 per cent of 
the protein of the ration of dairy cows with profit. In this 
case, fift}^ per cent or even more of the concentrates of the 
ration may consist of corn. It is not necessary, and usually 
not profitable, to use bran in the ration when it contains 
alfalfa as the roughage. 

For Work Horses. — Alfalfa hay, if not dusty, is very 
suitable for work horses. When it is fed, there is no need 
of feeding nitrogenous concentrates in addition to corn. It 
is usually too laxative to furnish a very large part of the 
roughage of driving horses. It perhaps may give better 
results if fed with tim- 
othy hay, oats straw, 
or corn stover. Horses 
will maintain flesh bet- 
ter on alfalfa than on 
timothy hay. Late-cut 
alfalfa hay is preferable 
for horses. 

Mammoth clover hay 
has about the same 
chemical composition as 
red clover hay. It is 
coarser and, conse- 
quently, less valuable as 
a feed. It will grow 
under more adverse con- 
ditions than red clover. 
It is several weeks later than red clover and jdelds but one 
cutting in a season. It is often grown with timothy as it 
is ready for cutting at about the same time as timothy. As 




Fig. 55. 



■ Alsike clover. ( Livingston , Field 
Crop Production.) 



242 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



it grows very heavy and rank, it is often possible to pasture 
it early in the spring before it is cut for hay. It is practi- 
cally as good for cattle as red clover 
hay, but not as valuable for horses, 
hogs, and sheep on account of the 
stems. 

Alsike Clover Hay is similar in 
chemical composition to red clover' 
hay. Well-made alsike hay has a 
high feeding value, but the yield is 
usually too small to permit its being 
grown profitably if red clover can 
be grown. However, it may be 
grown successfully on land too acid 
or too wet for red clover. It should 
be grown with timothy or some other 
grass, as it usually has weak stems 
and will fall to the ground unless 
supported. Such a mixture makes 
a very good hay for horses, as it 
usually is clean and free from dust. 
Sweet Clover Hay. — Quite gener- 
ally regarded as a pest until recently, 
sweet clover is coming slowly into 
use as a feed for farm animals. It 
will grow on soil too poor in humus 
to grow red clover or alfalfa success- 
fuUy. Owing to the tough seed coats much of the seed will 
not germinate the first year. The ordinary white sweet clover 
should be sown. Usually one crop of hay may be secured 
the j&rst year and two crops the second year. Inasmuch as 




Fig. 56. — Sweet clover. 
(Piper, Forage Plants.) 



THE HAYS 



J43 



the first season's growth does not usually get coarse and 
woody, it may be cut the first season when the plant shows its 
maximum growth in the fall. The second season the hay 
should be cut just before the first bloom appears, as the plant 
then rapidly becomes coarse, woody, and less palatable. It 
is rather difficult to cure, and 
care should be taken not to 
shatter off the leaves. 

In chemical composition, 
sweet clover hay is about the 
same as alfalfa. In feeding 
value, good sweet clover hay 
is a little less valuable than 
alfalfa hay. Its chief draw- 
back is its bitter taste, which 
often causes animals to refuse 
it at first. The bitter taste 
is not present in the young 
shoots but only in the older, 
tougher stalks. However, stock can be readily induced to 
eat it, and once they acquire a taste for it no difficulty is 
experienced. It is used especially for cattle and sheep. 

Crimson clover is an annual grown in the South Atlantic 
States. It does not make a satisfactory hay on account 
of the small, rigid, barb hairs which occur on the ripened 
head of the plant. These hairs may form balls in the diges- 
tive tract of the horse and cause serious trouble or even 
death. If it is used for hay, it should be cut at the time of 
blooming. 

Japan clover, or lespedeza is an annual grown extensively 
in the South. It furnishes from one to four tons of hay per 




Fig. 57. — A crimson clover plant. 
(Livingston, Field Crop Production.) 



244 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



acre. It is similar to red clover hay in chemical composition 
and equal to the best red clover hay in feeding value. 

The velvet bean is an annual grown in the extreme South. 
It is very difficult to cure into hay on account of its rank 

growth. The vines are 
sometimes 75 feet long. 
It is a heavy yielder and 
ranks with other legumes 
in feeding value. 

The peanut is grown in 
the South. Hay made 
from the peanut vines is 
about equal to red clover 
in feeding value. 

The beggar weed is an 
erect annual from 3 to 10 
feet high. It is used in 
the South for hay. It 
has a very rank growth, 
often yielding 4 to 6 
tons per acre. In feeding 
value the hay is probably 
a little below red clover. 

Canada field peas, 
grown in Canada and the 
northern states of this country, are sometimes used for hay. 
Well-cured peavine hay is about equal to red clover in feeding 
value. Peas are often seeded with oats. The oats support 
the peas, so that mowing is easier. 

Cowpea hay is used quite generally in the South, al- 
though it is not generally used in the North, where the 




Fig. 58. — Field pea. (Piper, Forage 
Plants.) 



THE HAYS 



245 



other legumes may be more successfully raised. In the 
corn-belt, it can be grown to advantage sometimes as a 
catch crop, especially after the failure of clover. Cowpea 
hay is rather difficult 
to cure. In composition 
and feeding value, it 
closely resembles alfalfa. 
It is especially valuable 
for dairy cows. 

Soybean hay, although 
Uttle used, ranks in feed- 
ing value with the other 
legume hays. Soybeans 
may be grown as a catch 
crop. 

Common vetch, often 
grown with barley, oats, 
wheat, or rye, is quite 
generally used on the 
Pacific coast and in the 
South as a hay. It is 
seeded in the fall usually. 
Hairy vetch can be grown 
in the corn-belt. The 
United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture ^ 
states that it can be used to seed in the corn at the last 
cultivation to furnish a subsequent crop for green manuring 
or for hay. Hairy vetch is one of the best legumes to use 
where red clover is not a success. This is especially true 

1 Farmers' Bui. 515. 




Fig. 59. — Cowpea. (Piper, Forage 
Plants.) 



246 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



in sandy soils. Vetch hay is at least as valuable as red 
clover hay. 



THE GRASS HAYS 

The principal grass hay of the corn-belt is timothy. 
Other grasses which are sometimes grown for hay are the 

millets, the sorghums, 
Sudan grass, red top, 
orchard grass, Bermuda 
grass, Johnson grass, 
prairie grass, brome 
grass, tall oat grass, 
Italian rye grass, slen- 
der wheat grass, west- 
ern wheat grass, rye, 
oats, and barley. Un- 
hke the legume hays, 
most of the grass hays 
are deficient in protein 
and consequently they 
are not as valuable for 
most feeding purposes. 
They have the advan- 
tage of being more easily grown and more easily cured than 
the legume hays. 

Timothy Hay. — Timothy is famihar to all as it is very 
widely and easily grown. The hay is easily cured and un- 
usually free from dust. The objections to timothy are its 
low-feeding value and the fact that it is very hard on the 
soil. These objections may be partly obviated by sowing 
alsike or red clover in it. 




Fig. 60. — A soybean plant. (Livingston, 
Field Crop Production.) 



THE HAYS 



247 



The average chemical composition of timothy hay is as 
follows : water, 13.2 per cent ; ash, 4.4 per cent ; crude 
protein, 5.9 per cent ; crude fiber, 29.0 per cent ; nitrogen- 
free extract, 45.0 per cent ; and fat, 2.5 per cent. Its net 
energy value is 33.6 
therms per 100 pounds. 

On account of its low 
content of protein, it 
cannot be regarded as 
a satisfactory roughage 
for growing or breed- 
ing animals unless they 
receive considerable 
amounts of nitrogenous 
concentrates in ad- 
dition. -Such animals 
should have consider- 
able wheat bran. If 
fed as the exclusive 
roughage to fattening 
cattle and sheep, the 
concentrates should be 
rich in nitrogenous 
feeds, as linseed meal, 
gluten feed, cottonseed meal, or wheat bran. Even then the 
results in most cases will not be as satisfactory as when corn 
alone is fed with clover or alfalfa hay. Usually the market 
value of timothy hay and the cost of the nitrogenous con- 
centrates make it too expensive for such feeding. Timothy 
hay is often given too high a value as a feed for the milk cow. 
When it forrns a large part of her roughage, a very large 




Fig. 61. 



Hairy vetch. 
Plants.) 



(Piper, Forage 



248 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



proportion of the concentrates should consist of nitrogenous 
feed, such as bran, gluten feed, linseed meal, cottonseed meal, 
etc. Only a small amount of corn should be used in such a 

ration. Even then the best 
results will not be obtained. 
For horses, however, timo- 
thy hay is the standard 
roughage. It is practically 
the only roughage used for 
horses in the city. It is 
also extensively used on the 
farm. The reasons for its 
preeminence as a roughage 
for horses are as follows : 

(1) it is free from dust; 

(2) there is little loss in 
handling it; (3) it is very 
palatable when cut at the 
proper stage ; (4) it does 
not produce too much lax- 
ness of the bowels ; and (5) 
it gives the necessary bulk 
and volume to the ration. 
Timothy hay which con- 
tains some clover is better 

for foals, young horses, and brood mares on account of the 
higher protein content. 

The Millets. — The principal millets used for hay in the 
United States are foxtail millet, including the varieties 
common, German, Hungarian, etc. ; broom-corn or hog mil- 
let; and Japanese barnyard millet. Common, German, 




Fig. 62. — Timothy. (Piper, Forage 
Plants.) 



THE HAYS 



249 



and Hungarian millets are frequently grown as catch crops 
in the corn-belt. Thickly seeded, early cut millet hay is 
recommended by many authorities as useful for cattle and 
sheep feeding. It should be fed sparingly to horses as it 
may cause kidney disturbances. 

Their feeding values are quite low, however, and the 
author does not advise their general use, although they 




Fig. 63. 



Production of timothy in the United States. One dot represents 
100,000 tons. (Hitchcock, A Text-Book of Grasses.) 



may have their place at times when there is a general scarcity 
of hay. 

The sorghums used for hay include the sweet sorghums, 
the kafirs, milo, feterita, and Sudan grass. The other 
sorghums are less valuable for hay. When used for hay the 
sorghums should be seeded thickly so as to prevent a coarse 
growth. They should be cut at the late milk stage. They 
are probably about equal to timothy hay in feeding value. 

Sudan grass was introduced into the South a few years 



250 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



SI, 



Fig. 64. — Common mil- 
let. (Voorhees, Forage 
Crops.) 



ago and quite recently into the corn- 
belt. It is a drought-resistant plant. 
Like the other sorghums, it should be 
seeded thickly to prevent it from be- 
coming too coarse. It should be cut 
for hay when the heads are in bloom 
or earlier. It is a very heavy yielder, 
and the hay is not as coarse as that 
from the other sorghums. In feeding 
value it is about equal to timothy 
hay. It is often sown with cowpeas 
or soybeans. 

Red top is especially valuable on 
damp lowlands. It is grown exten- 
sively for hay in New England and is 
also grown to considerable extent in 
southern Ilhnois and in the South. 
However, its use is not restricted to 
any particular locaUty. It yields a 
fairly palatable hay lower than timo- 
thy in feeding value. 

Orchard grass is especially adapted 
to shady places. It is grown mostly 
in the South. It is about two weeks 
earher than timothy. It should be 
harvested early. The hay is woody, 
unpalatable, and not especially rel- 
ished by stock if cut after bloom. 

Bermuda grass is grown quite ex- 
tensively in the South. It is to the 
cotton-belt what bluegrass is to the 



THE HAYS 



251 




^m^j,. 








Fig. 65. — German millet. 
(Voorhees, Forage Crops.) 



Fig. 66. — Hungarian millet. (Voor- 
hees. Forage Crops.) 



252 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




THE HAYS 



253 



corn-belt. It jdelds a large amount of hay which is about 
equal to timothy in feeding value. 

Johnson grass is an important hay crop in the South. 
It gives a heavy yield of hay which has a fair feeding value. 
Johnson grass has the objection 
that it spreads very rapidly and 
may become a pest. 

Prairie hay is made from the 
native grasses found on the west- 
ern prairies. The upland hay is 
preferable to the midland and low- 
land hay. It is much used in the 
West and has a fairly high feeding 
value, being better than timothy. 

Brome grass is a very import- 
ant pasture and hay grass in 
Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, 
Manitoba and Saskatchewan. It 
is quite resistant to cold. In 
feeding value it is superior to 
timothy. It is more palatable 
than timothy. 

Tall oat grass is one of the best 
perennial grasses for poor land. 
Also it will withstand consider- 
able drought. However, it is not 
grown extensively in the United States, but it is grown to 
some extent in the South. It makes a fair hay, but is not 
very palatable. 

Italian rye grass is grown for hay to a certain extent in 
the Atlantic States and on the Pacific coast. In France and 




Fig. 68. — Red top. (Living- 
ston, Field Crop Production.) 



254 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



England it furnishes the largest proportion of the market 

hay. It makes a fairly palatable hay. 

Slender wheat grass, sometimes called western rye grass, 

is grown to a considerable extent in Manitoba, Alberta, 

Saskatchewan, and the 
Dakotas. The hay is 
comparable to timothy 
in feeding value. 

Western wheat grass 
is also known as blue- 
stem, blue-joint, and 
Colorado blue -stem. It 
is quite resistant both to 
drought and to alkali. 
It grows native over a 
large part of the West 
and the hay is valuable 
for horse feed. 

Rye, Oats, and Barley. 
— Fall-sown rye and 
spring-sown oats or bar- 
ley are sometimes used 
in the corn-belt to fur- 
nish a quick-growing, 
excellent, dust-free, and 
(Piper, Forage palatable hay. When 
used for this purpose, 

the cereals should be harvested before maturity while in the 

milk. Oats or barley sown with alfalfa as a nurse-crop are 

usually cut for hay after the young alfalfa gets a good start. 

Barley is used to a considerable extent for hay on the Pacific 




Fig. 69. 



Orchard-grass. 

Plants.) 



THE HAYS 



255 



coast. In feeding barley hay care must be taken to remove 
any of the beards which may have become lodged in the ani- 




FiG. 70. — Bermuda-grass. (Piper, Forage Plants.) 

mal's tongue or mouth. Although these hays have a fairly 
high nutritive" value, it is not likely that they will ever as- 
sume much importance in the corn-belt, on account of their 
high cost. 



CHAPTER XV 
FODDERS AND STOVERS 

The term fodder may have several meanings. Many of 
the older writers upon the subject of stock feeding call any 
feedingstuff a fodder regardless of its nature. Of the more 
recent authorities, some limit the term to roughages in 
general, while others apply the term to the entire cured 
plant of the large, coarse grasses, such as corn, sorghum, kafir 
corn, feterita, and milo maize. For the purpose of this 
book, the latter system of terminology has been adopted. 
The term stover is appKed to the cured stalk, leaves, and 
husks of these plants after the grain has been removed. 

Corn fodder in the corn-belt refers to the entire corn plant, 
i.e. stalk, leaves, husk, and ears, cut when ripe. It is also 
known as shock corn. North, south, and west of the corn- 
belt the term corn fodder refers to corn which is planted 
thickly and cut while it is still comparatively green. It 
contains only a few small ears. Inasmuch as corn is seldom 
treated in this manner in the corn-belt, we shall Hmit the 
meaning of the term to the entire mature corn plant, grown 
and cut in the ordinary way. 

The average chemical composition of corn-belt corn- 
fodder is as follows : water, 18.3 per cent ; ash, 4.0 per cent ; 
crude protein, 6.7 per cent ; crude fiber, 17.0 per cent ; nitro- 
gen-free extract, 52.1 per cent ; and fat, 1.8 per cent. How- 
ever, the composition may vary greatly, depending to a 

256 



FODDERS AND STOVERS 257 

large extent upon whether the fodder is allowed to remain in 
the field or is put in the barn. Thus, at the Ilhnois Station 
corn fodder which was allowed to remain in the shock con- 
tained 32 per cent of water, while corn fodder which was 
placed in the barn contained only 7 per cent. Further, 
corn fodder which is allowed to remain in the shock will 
lose a considerable part of the more digestible nutrients 
by leaching. Hence, it should be placed under shelter if 
possible. 

Corn fodder is as valuable for feeding to cattle as the same 
amount of ear corn and corn stover. Thus, if cattle are 
kept, there is no necessity of going to the labor and expense 
of husking all the corn on the farm, although part of it should 
be husked in order that the proper proportion of concentrates 
and roughages may be suppUed at all times. Corn fodder 
consists of about 50 per cent grain and 50 per cent stalk and 
leaves. 

Fattening cattle do very well upon a ration of corn fodder 
supplemented by ear corn and linseed meal. Dairy cows 
also can utilize corn fodder to the extent of half their rough- 
age. In this case, it is not necessary to add shelled or ground 
corn to the ration, but nitrogenous concentrates should be 
given. However, corn fodder is not as valuable for the 
dairy cow as for the fattening steer. Sheep will utihze some 
corn fodder, although they generally leave a considerable 
amount of the. coarser parts. Horses should not receive 
corn fodder exclusively. Work horses have not the time to 
digest it, and colts and brood mares need additional protein 
in their ration. Obviously, corn fodder is too bulky for use 
with hogs, although they will, of course, eat the grain from 
the husk. 



258 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



The sweet sorghums or sorgos can be grown success- 
fully almost anywhere in the United States. They are 
drought-resistant and, consequently, they are extensively 
grown in the South and Southwest both for the production 
of molasses and as a stock-feed. After periods of extreme 
drought, or an early frost, sorghum often contains prussic 



MMM^^^ 


m 






1^'. 


■iJ •• ■ ■ -. . - 



Fig. 71. — A field of orange sorghum. (Voorhees, Forage Crops.) 

acid, which is deadly poison. Second-growth sorghum also 
sometimes contains prussic acid. Hence, considerable care 
must be exercised in feeding it. Thoroughly cured sorghum 
fodder may be fed with little clanger. In feeding value it is 
about equal to corn fodder. Sweet sorghum fodder, if left 
in the field, is hkely to sour after about three months, 
due to the fermentation of the sugar which it contains. 
Kafir corn, feterita, and milo maize are closely related 



FODDERS AND STOVERS 



259 




Fig. 72. — A field of black-hulled white kafir. (Duggar, Southern 
Field Crops.) 



260 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



to the sweet sorghums. They are very resistant to drought 
and hot weather and are grown extensively in Kansas, 
Oklahoma, Texas, and Cahfornia. They are not grown to 
any great extent in the corn-belt. In feeding value, their 
fodders are about the same as corn fodder. Like the sweet 




Fig. 73. — a field of milo. (Montgomery, The Corn Crops.) 



sorghums they often contain prussic acid after the growth 
has been stunted by extreme drought or by frost. 

The broom-corns, kowliangs, and shallu also belong to 
the sorghums. They have dry, pithy stems and, conse- 
quently, their fodders are not as valuable for feed as those 
of the other sorghums. 



FODDERS AND STOVERS 261 

,Corn Stover. — As previously stated, corn stover refers 
to the entire corn plant after it has been cut and the ears 
husked out. The average chemical composition of corn 
stover as determined by analyses made in the corn-belt is 
as follows: water, 17.0 per cent; ash, 6.3 per cent; crude 
protein, 5.6 per cent ; crude fiber, 28.0 per cent ; nitrogen-free 
extract, 42.1 per cent; and fat, 1.0 per cent. As in the 
case of corn fodder, the method of storage has considerable 
influence upon the chemical composition. Thus, the water 
content may vary from 10 per cent in the case of stover 
stored in the barn, to 55 per cent in the case of stover al- 
lowed to remain in the field. As in the case of corn fodder, 
exposure to rain and snow will cause a considerable loss of the 
most digestible nutrients of the stover. 

The feeding value and possibilities of corn stover are usu- 
ally underestimated. Especially is this true in the central 
and western parts of the corn-belt, where only a small per- 
centage of the corn crop is cut. As a matter of fact, the stover 
contains from one-fourth to one-third of the feeding-value of 
the entire corn crop. 

Corn stover may profitably furnish from one-third to 
one-half of the roughage when fed with clover or alfalfa 
hay to fattening cattle. It may furnish a large part of the 
ration of stock cattle which are being wintered without 
making any gain. Also, it may form a large part of the ration 
of breeding cows and breeding ewes. For milk cows it has 
about the same value as timothy hay and should be used in 
only limited amounts. Corn, Unseed meal, and corn stover 
will produce fair, though not maximum, gains with fattening 
sheep. It may be fed also to horses, especially in winter, 
when they are not at hard work. For this purpose, it has 



262 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

a value only slightly below that of timothy hay. It is said 
to be much better than good hay for horses with heaves, 
owing to its being free from dust. 

Shredding corn stover does not increase its value as a 
feed but it does make it much easier to handle and store, and 
more valuable as a bedding. 

Sweet sorghum, kafir, feterita, and milo stovers are 
the stalk and leaves of these plants after the grain has been 
removed. In feeding value, they are about equal to corn 
stover. 

Kowliang and shallu stover are not as valuable as stover 
from the other sorghums. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE STRAWS 

Straw consists of the stems and leaves of the cereals and 
legumes after the ripe seeds have been threshed out. The 
plant, as it approaches maturity, transfers its food material 
from the stem and leaves to the seed, leaving the stem and 
leaves low in all the nutrients except crude fiber which, as 
has been shown, is quite indigestible. Thus the straws are 
very low in digestible nutrients and net energ}\ In addition, 
they are quite unpalatable. Consequently, their nutritive 
value is usually rather low. 

Straw may often be used to advantage when damp or 
uncured hay is put in the mow or stack. A layer of haj^ 
followed by a layer of dry straw will enable one to put in 
hay which otherwise would mold. This practice also secures 
an increased consumption of the straw as it adds greatly 
to its palatability. This method is especially recommended 
for alfalfa and clover when the weather is unfavorable to 
their proper curing. It not only lessens the danger of the 
hay molding, but it prevents the hay from becoming too 
brittle and the leaves from shattering off. Inasmuch as it 
is often more economical to feed straw with clover or alfalfa 
hay, nothing is lost by the method. 

The leading straws used for stock feeding are oats, barley, 
wheat, and rye. Of less importance are threshed timothy, 
red top, millet, flax, clover, alfalfa, soj^beans, and cowpeas. 

263 



264 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Oat Straw. — The most valuable straw for feeding is 
oat straw. Its chemical composition is as follows : water, 
9.2 per cent ; ash, 5.1 per cent ; crude protein, 4.0 per cent ; 
crude fiber, 37.0 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 42.4 per 
cent; and fat, 2.3 per cent. The net energy value is 21.2 
therms per 100 pounds. 

Oat straw is one of the best of the non-nitrogenous rough- 
ages for fattening cattle and sheep, being equal to timothy 
hay. It is especially valuable when fed with corn and corn 
silage. It should be supplemented by nitrogenous con- 
centrates or legume hays. Milk cows also may use some oat 
straw to advantage. Breeding and stock cattle can use 
large amounts of oat straw to good advantage, as can also 
breeding ewes. Horses that are not at work may also use 
it. It is too bulky for horses at hard work. 

Barley straw ranks next to oat straw in feeding value. 
However, it should not be used to any great extent for fatten- 
ing stock, milk cows, or work horses. It may be used as a 
part of the roughage for stock cattle and breeding animals, 
except hogs. 

Wheat straw has a lower feeding value than barley straw. 
It may be used as a part of the ration for wintering cattle 
and sheep when no gain is desired. 

Rye straw has a lower feeding value than wheat straw. 
It is best suited for bedding. 

Timothy, red top, millet, and flax straw have but little 
feeding value. They may be used to a certain extent in 
wintering stock cattle and sheep. 

Clover, alfalfa, soybean, and cowpea straw contain more 
crude protein than the non-legume straws. Threshed clover 
and alfalfa may be used as a part of the roughage for stock 



THE STRAWS 265 

cattle, and for breeding cattle and sheep. Alfalfa straw or 
chaff is often ground and used in alfalfa, molasses feeds or 
sold as alfalfa meal. When so used it is quite difficult to 
detect. Soybean and cowpea straw are sometimes used for 
fattening cattle and sheep with fair results. The condition 
of the straw will determine to a large extent its value as a 
feed. 



CHAPTER XVII 
PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 

Pasture or Forage Crops. — Different authorities upon 
stock feeding make different and often vague distinctions 
between the terms forage and pasture. In fact few of them 
make the same distinction. Consequently, we shall regard 
the two terms as synonymous, although, as stated, a distinc- 
tion between them is often made. For the purpose of this 
book, any crop which is harvested by the animals themselves 
may be regarded as a pasture or forage crop. Although a 
pasture of forage crop is usually harvested in a green or un- 
ripe condition, as in the case of clover pasture, such is not 
always the case, as in the case of pasturing stalk fields after 
the corn has been harvested. 

Pasture is almost essential to the successful breeding of 
all classes of five stock. Pastures may be divided into two 
general classes, permanent and temporary. A permanent 
pasture is one which is allowed to remain for a considerable 
period of time. Permanent pastures are more generally 
used on land which is too rough or too low in fertiUty to 
make cultivation profitable, or they are used on cheap land 
where labor is high. Many farmers on rough, thin, cheap 
land would make more from their land if it were in permanent 
pasture than they do by cultivating it. However, there is 
considerable permanent pasture on corn-belt land which is 

266 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 267 

well adapted for growing the cultivated crops. It may be 
doubtful if one can profitably keep $200 land in permanent 
pasture. If one is breeding cattle, horses, or sheep to any 
extent, it probably will be profitable to keep some permanent 
pasture. Otherwise, it probably will be more profitable 
to depend upon temporary pastures. Temporary pastures 
usually are used for only a year or two and are then turned 
under and a cultivated crop put in. They usually are used 
as a part of nearly all good rotations and thus are of value 
not only from the standpoint of their nutritive value but 
also from the standpoint of their fertilizing value. Unlike 
permanent pastures, no live stock farmer can afford to be 
without temporary pastures. 

Soiling Crops. — A soiling crop is one which is cut green 
and supplied to animals in confinement. Soilage is one of 
the most intensive forms of farming. It is more to be 
recommended to dairy specialists than to followers of other 
systems of live stock farming. It is commonly practiced 
in Europe, in the eastern part of the United States, and in 
the immediate vicinity of some of the larger cities where 
land is very expensive and labor relatively cheap. In the 
best systems of soiling, such crops as rye, clover, alfalfa, 
oats, peas, early and late corn, sorghum, etc., are planted 
at such a time as to insure a continuous supply of green, 
though fairly mature, feed from early spring until late fall. 
Thus by the time one green crop is gone, another is ready to 
take its place. "The feeding value of soiling crops is about 
the same as that of the same crops when pastured. 

Burkett ^ makes the following suggestions for a soiling 
scheme. " Among the best soiling crops the following may 

1 "Feeding Farm Animals," p. 299. 



268 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

be mentioned : peas and oats, rye, alfalfa, clover, vetch and 
wheat, soybeans, cowpeas, corn, millet, sorghum, and rape. 
On some farms green crops are fed throughout the season. 
In a general way the practice includes the rotation somewhat 
as follows, with substitutes in certain cases where the season 
has unfavorably influenced the usual order or makes possible 
the use of some local crop : 

^' a. Winter rye or wheat, to be cut in May. 

"6. Green alfalfa, to be used any time. 

"c. Green clover, cut and fed in June. 

^^d. Peas and oats, sown early in spring, with a succession 
at two or three intervals. 

'^e. Corn or sorghum, planted as early as possible, to be 
used during July and August. 

''/• Millet, planted in June or early July, and fed in August. 

"g. The land from which the peas and oats and early corn 
are removed may be seeded to millet for August feeding." 

A number of rotations for soiling have been worked out for 
different locahties. These tables usually give the crop to 
plant, the amount of seed per acre, the time of seeding, the 
area for ten cows, and the time of cutting. 

The main advantage of soilage over pasturage is the much 
larger amount of feed which may be removed from the 
land, as an animal on pasture, by tramping, defecating, 
urinating, slobbering, etc., destroys more feed than it eats. 
Also one may often get two crops off a part of the land in 
one year. Thus, one acre in soiling crops may support as 
many animals as two or three acres in pasture. The dis- 
advantages of soiling are the greater expenditure for labor, 
seed, and fertihzer in producing the crops, and the greater 
expenditure for labor in cutting and hauling them to the 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 269 

stock. The labor proposition alone is sufficient to prevent 
soiling ever becoming very popular in the corn-belt, except 
upon high-priced land near the cities. 

However, partial soiling often may be practiced success- 
fully in the corn-belt. In the summer when flies are bad, 
it may be profitable to cut the pasture crops and haul them 
to the stock which are kept in cool, dark, comfortable 



JAN 



FEB. 



MAR. 



APR. 



MAY 



JUNE 



JULY 



AUG. 



SEPT 



OCT. 



NOV. 



DEC. 



CLOI/ER 



/5* 



R IBU. 



O.J'A 



BU 



— X 

X- 
I'/rZ BU. 
]'A-2BU. 



-X 



CORN 



PAS TURE 



Fig. 74. 



X =APPROX/MAT£ T/ME OF PLANT/NG 
— = » " '» FEED/N6 

'^"^ =POSSfBIUT/ OF FEED/ N6 

Showing seed per acre, approximate time of planting and feeding 
different soiling crops. (Illinois Experiment Station.) 



quarters during the day and turned out to graze at night. If 
one desires to feed green alfalfa to cattle it is best to cut it 
and carry it to the stock rather than pasture it, for reasons 
already mentioned. In seasons of exceptional drought, when 
the pastures are all gone, it is often feasible to cut green 
corn or other crops and feed them to the stock in order to 
help tide them over until the pasture comes again. 

Hayden, at the IlUnois Experiment Station, ^ suggests the 



1 Cir. 152. 



270 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

system of soilage for dairy cows for Illinois as given in 
Figure 74. 

Of course, this plan may be modified to siiit various condi- 
tions. 

Inasmuch as the practice of soilage is quite complicated, 
and as it is but little used in the corn-belt, we shall confine 
our discussion of it to these few remarks and refer the student 
to other sources for more detailed information. ^ 

In general the pasture and soiling crops may be divided 
into two sub-classes, legumes and grasses. 

LEGUMES 

The principal legume used for pasture in the corn-belt 
is red clover. Others of importance in the United States 
are alfalfa, mammoth clover, white clover, alsike clover, 
sweet clover, crimson clover, Japan clover, velvet beans, 
peanuts, beggar weed, Canada field peas, cowpeas, soy beans, 
and vetch. 

Red clover should be grown on every farm in the corn- 
belt where alfalfa is not grown. Its value as a hay has 
already been noted. As a pasture and soiling crop it is no 
less valuable. No other clover, excepting sweet clover, 
furnishes as much pasture in one season, and no other clover 
is as palatable. 

The average chemical composition of red clover pasture 
is as follows : water, 70.8 per cent ; ash, 2.1 per cent ; crude 

1 Henry and Morrison, "Feeds and Feeding," p. 264. Burkett, "First 
Principles of Feeding Farm Animals," p. 289. Jordan, "The Feeding, of 
Animals," p. 263. Voorhees, " Forage Crops," p. 27. Conn. (Storrs) Bui. 
9; Reports, 1891, 1895. Maryland Bui. 98. Mass. Reports, 1887-1891, 
1893 ; Bui. 72, 133. New Jersey Bui. 158 ; Report, 1902. Penn. Reports, 
1889, 1904-1905 ; Bui. 65, 75, 109. Vermont Bui. 158. Wis. Report 1885 ; 
Bui. 103, 235. Iowa Bui. 15, 19, 23, 27. Mich. Bui. 223. 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 271 

protein, 4.4 per cent; crude fiber, 8.1 per cent; nitrogen- 
free extract, 13.5 per cent; and fat, 1.1 per cent. Its net 
energy value is 16.2 therms per 100 pounds. In chemical 
composition it is not much different from bluegrass. It is 
a little higher in protein and a little lower in ash. It is not 
as safe a feed, however, as is bluegrass. When clover is 
rank and succulent, cattle, sheep, and horses must be grazed 
on it with caution, especially at first, to avoid bloating. This 
danger may be lessened by having the animals full of dry 
hay before turning them into clover, by turning them in 
at first for only an hour or two when the dew is off and the 
pasture is as dry as possible, and by keeping dry hay or 
straw accessible to them in the pasture. Clover pasture 
should not be grazed too closely, and stock should be kept off 
when the ground is very soft, as it is rather easily killed. 
Clover is often used for pasture after the first cutting has 
been used for hay. 

Clover pasture is recommended for all classes of farm ani- 
mals if care is taken to prevent bloat. It is doubtful if it 
is profitable to feed any grain to milk cows which are on good 
clover pasture. If rapid fattening is desired, corn should 
be fed to steers on clover pasture. Ordinarily, however, this 
is not done. Grain is not necessary for breeding cows and 
calves on clover pasture. It is well to give colts on clover 
pasture some grain. 

Clover pasture furnishes about a maintenance ration for 
hogs ; hence if any fattening is desired, grain should be fed 
with it. Two or three pounds daily per 100 pounds of pig 
of a mixture of ten parts corn and one part tankage should 
be sufficient for good fattening gains. No more grain should 
be fed than they will clean up. If corn is very high in price, 



272 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

it will be profitable to cut down the grain ration and make 
them eat more clover. In general, the greatest economy 
of forage for hogs is brought about when they are fed from 
one-half to two-thirds of a full-feed of grain in addition to 
the pasture. The number of hogs that may be kept on an 
acre of clover will depend on the abundance of the forage and 
the size of the hogs, but in general eight to twelve head may 
^e used on good clover. 

Alfalfa, although probably the most valuable hay, is not 
adapted to heavy pasturing, especially in the corn-belt, as a 
little tramping soon kills it. However, if one pastures it 
only Hghtly, the results are nearly as bad, as the top of the 
plant must be removed when the little shoots come at the 
base of the plant in order for it to make a satisfactory growth. 
Probably the most successful way to pasture alfalfa is to 
turn a comparatively small number of animals into a field 
of it and then cut it for hay when the shoots come up at the 
base of the plant. In this way, not much is tramped out, as 
the animals ordinarily will travel in run-ways and eat only 
along the edges of these run-ways. The alfalfa is then cut 
for hay when the shoots appear at the base. Alfalfa is 
much better for soiling than for pasture. Green alfalfa, 
especially when wet, has a very decided tendency to cause 
bloat. Hence considerable care should be exercised in its 
use. 

Alfalfa pasture is excellent for cattle and sheep of all 
kinds. The trouble is that, unless the precautions mentioned 
above are taken, the stock are not good for the alfalfa. There 
is perhaps no forage crop which will produce as much pork 
per acre as alfalfa. Many breeders report that brood mares 
are difficult to get in foal when turned on alfalfa pasture. 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 273 

Colts may be pastured on alfalfa, but it is probably not profit- 
able in the corn-belt, although it may be so farther west. 

Mammoth clover is a valuable pasture and soihng crop, 
being equal to red clover. If not pastured too heavily in 
the spring, it may be cut later for hay. 

White and alsike clovers are occasionally used as pasture 
crops, but usually with timothy or bluegrass, as they add 
materially to the feeding value of either of the latter crops. 
In feeding value they are equal to red clover. White clover 
is said to cause excessive " slobbering " in horses. It is 
claimed by some horsemen that wet alsike poisons the 
noses, faces, and legs of white-faced and white-legged horses. 
It is very doubtful if this is true, however. 

Sweet Clover. — Being one of the legumes, sweet clover 
is rich in protein and mineral matter. It makes excellent 
pasture for horses, sheep, cattle, and hogs. Its feeding value 
is about the same as that of red clover. It is said that it is 
not as^ liable - to cause bloat as red clover or alfalfa. 
Ordinarily, stock dislike the taste of it at first, but by creat- 
ing an appetite for it by turning them in early in the spring 
before other green feed has been started, they soon learn to 
relish it. It should be pastured heavily enough to keep it 
eaten down closely, so that there will be an abundance of 
fresh shoots for grazing purposes at all times, as animals 
dislike the hard, woody stems which contain the bitter 
tasting substance, cumarin ; clipping with the mower from 
time to time will answer the same purpose. An acre of sweet 
clover often will support 15 to 20 hogs. They should be 
" rung," however, to prevent them from injuring the roots. 
After a few years sweet clover usually dies out and is sup- 
planted by bluegrass. 



274 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Crimson clover is much better for pasture than for hay, 
owing to danger from the barbed hairs on the cured blossoms. 
For pasture it is equal to red clover in feeding value, but it is 
not as good a yielder in the corn-belt. It can be pastured in 
the spring about two weeks earlier than red clover. 

Japan clover, or lespedeza is valuable as a pasture for 
all classes of farm animals. Though they usually do not 
like it at first, they soon learn to relish it. It is considered 
to be the best pasture crop for the poor, clay soils of the 
South. It is equal to red clover in feeding value. It does 
not cause bloat. It will withstand heavy pasturing and 
will maintain itself indefinitely if not pastured too heavily. 

Velvet beans are used sometimes for pasture in the extreme 
South. Owing to the viny nature of the plants, they are 
usually grown with corn, millet, or sorghum to support 
the vine. They are pastured after the pods have matured in 
the fall. They are quite valuable and furnish an enormous 
amount of roughage. It has been said that they cause 
abortion in cattle and hogs and blind staggers in horses, but 
this is not true. 

Peanuts make an especially valuable forage in the South 
for hogs. The hogs are turned in and allowed to root up the 
peanuts. The tops of the plants are also valuable for other 
classes of live stock. 

Beggar weed is sometimes grown in the extreme South 
for pasture. It is well liked by stock. 

Canada field peas are often grown in Canada and northern 
United States for pasture and for soiling. They are some- 
times grown with oats and sometimes grown alone. They 
are especially valuable for sheep- and hog-pasture. Hogs 
are turned in when the peas are full-sized, while they are 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 



275 



allowed to mature for sheep. No other feed need be given 
to either sheep or hogs on pea forage. They are also good 
for milk cows, and are often used for soihng. 




Fig. 75. — Field of velvet beans. (Duggar, Southern Field Crops.) 

Cowpeas, owing to the large amount of protein and mineral 
matter which they contain, furnish an admirable pasture, 
especially in the South. Certain varieties may be grown 



276 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 




PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 277 

successfully in the corn-belt. They may be used as pasture 
for all classes of live stock, but probably most profitably 
with hogs. For hog pasture they may be sown alone, planted 
with corn, or sown in the corn after the last cultivation. If 
hogs have access to cowpeas, no additional nitrogenous feed 
need be given, but they should have a two-thirds feed of 
corn. As a pork producer, cowpea pasture ranks consider- 
ably below clover, alfalfa, or rape pasture. 

Soybeans. — Like cowpeas, soybean forage is used prin- 
cipally for hogs. Hogs relish soybeans better than cowpeas. 
Carmichael and Eastwood, at the Ohio Experiment Station, ^ 
found that clover, rape, soybeans, and bluegrass as forages 
for pork production ranked in the order named. A one-half 
full-feed of corn to hogs on soybeans will result in good gains. 
Soybeans may be planted in the corn for hog pasture, but 
cowpeas are much better suited for this purpose. 

Common vetch is often used for pasture in the West along 
the Pacific coast. Hairy vetch may be used in the corn-belt. 
It furnishes a valuable pasture, ranking in feeding value 
witTi alfalfa. It should be seeded with a cereal, such as 
oats or rye, to furnish support to the weak vetch vine. It 
is quite valuable for soihng. 

GRASSES 

The leading grasses used in the corn-belt for pasture are 
Kentucky bluegrass and timothy. Other grasses used for 
pasture are Canada bluegrass, the millets, the sorghums, 
red top, orchard grass, Bermuda grass, Johnson grass, 
brome grass, rye, oats, barley, wheat, corn, perennial rye 
grass, and meadow fescue. 

1 Bui. 242. 



278 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Kentucky bluegrass is the preemment grass of the per- 
manent pastures of the corn-belt. It is also called June 
grass. It is not adapted to temporary pastures as several 
seasons are required to bring it to a maximum growth. 
However, after it once gets a good start, it will last for years 
if properly cared for. In order to use bluegrass successfully, 
one must have a knowledge of its habit of growth. The 
plant begins growth early in the spring and bears seed late 
in May or early in June. Then a dormant period of several 
\veeks follows during which there is little growth. The 
midsummer and fall rains revive the plants, and another 
period of growth ensues, during which the plants store nu- 
trients for the coming season's seed-bearing. Thus, one should 
not rely upon the grass for a steady and uniform feed supply 
throughout the entire season. It should not be stocked, 
certainly not heavily, before May or June, although some- 
times the general practice seems to be to turn stock on pas- 
ture early in the spring before the grass gets a start and while 
it is still '' washy." Sometimes it is profitable not to stock 
heavily until late summer, keeping the stock on it until 
early winter. It should not be grazed too closely. 

The chemical composition of bluegrass is as follows : 
water, 65.1 per cent; ash, 2.8 per cent; crude protein, 4.1 
per cent; crude fiber, 9.1 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 
17.6 per cent; and fat, 1.3 per cent. It is the richest graes 
in crude protein, ash, and fat. In addition to this, its pala- 
tability makes it relished by all classes of live stock. 

Bluegrass pasture is almost a necessity for the successful 
breeding of any class of farm animals. It makes an ideal 
ration for the mare and colt, the cow and calf, and the ewe 
and lamb. The sow and pigs are also greatly benefited by 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 270 




Fig. 77. — Pdnicles of Canada blue grass (left) and Kentucky blue 
grass (right). (Piper, Forage Plants.) 



280 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

having the run of a bluegrass pasture in addition to their 
concentrates. Milch cows do well on it. They may give 
more milk if given a few pounds of grain in addition to the 
pasture, but the cost of production is increased and the 
practice may not be economical. For fattening cattle, 
sheep, and hogs, bluegrass pasture makes an admirable 
roughage. If rapid fattening is desired, grain should be 
given in addition. If only fair gains are desired, no grain 
need be fed except in the case of hogs. Hogs on blue- 
grass should receive one-half to a two-thirds full-feed of 
concentrates. In certain parts of Virginia and West 
Virginia, many cattle are fattened for the export trade, 
attaining a very superior finish upon bluegrass pasture 
alone without the use of any grain. Work horses may be 
turned out on bluegrass at night after they have eaten 
their grain. 

It usually requires 1 to 2 acres of bluegrass for a horse or 
cow. One acre of good bluegrass will provide forage for 
10 to 14 hogs or 5 to 7 sheep. It is maintained by many that 
one cannot afiford to keep expensive corn-belt land in blue- 
grass. For the average farmer this may be true, but it is 
almost essential to the breeder of pure-bred hve stock. Also 
the increasing cost and scarcity of farm labor may make it 
economical to keep some of the land in permanent pasture. 

Timothy. — Timothy is more widely grown than any 
other grass in this country. It may be pastured earher in 
the spring than bluegrass, but it does not produce so much 
growth in the fall. It is neither as palatable nor as valuable 
a feed as bluegrass. It is, however, better adapted for 
temporary pasture, as it can be fully established in a single 
season. For this purpose it should be mixed with clover. 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 281 

Timothy should be grazed so closely that but few seed stems 
are thrown up. 

The chemical composition of timothy pasture is as follows : 
water, 61.6 per cent; ash, 2.1 per cent; crude protein, 3.1 
per cent; crude fiber, 11.8 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 
20.2 per cent; and fat, 1.2 per cent. As indicated by the 
chemical composition, timothy has not as high a feeding 
value as bluegrass. Still, if it contains some clover to make 
up the deficiency in the protein and ash, it answers very 
well for a temporary pasture, especially during the spring and 
summer. It may be used for all classes of livestock. It is 
less valuable for hogs than for any other class of farm animals. 

Canada bluegrass is most abundant in eastern Canada 
and northeastern United States. It will grow under more 
adverse conditions than Kentucky bluegrass, which it 
resembles in appearance and habit of growth. It is not 
quite as high in feeding value as Kentucky bluegrass, but 
it is a good substitute for it. 

The millets, although Httle used for pasture, are exten- 
sively grown for soiling crops. They are quite valuable 
when so used. 

The sorghums are sometimes used for pasture. Serious 
trouble and sometimes death often result from cattle or 
horses eating second-growth sorghum. This also happens 
sometimes from eating first-growth sorghum. This usually 
occurs after the growth of the plant has been temporarily 
checked by severe drought or frost. The difficulty seems to 
be due to the formation of prussic acid in the plant. Sweet 
sorghum, kafir corn, milo maize, Sudan grass, and feterita 
all have the same objection. In general, it is safer not to 
pasture the second-growth of these crops. 



282 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



The sorghums are excellent for soiling and are probably 
used more extensively for this purpose than any other crop 
in the United States. 

Red top, as previously stated, is adapted for growth on 
poor, wet lowlands. It is more valuable for pasture than 
for hay. 

Orchard grass does well in shady places, as in orchards. 
It will stand heavy grazing and furnishes pasture very 
early in the spring and very late in the fall. 

Bermuda grass is the 
ordinary non-legume pas- 
ture of the South. It is 
very valuable and nutri- 
tious. It is said that one 
acre of good Bermuda 
grass will support two 
head of cattle or ten head 
of sheep for eight months. 
Johnson grass, al- 
though used for hay in 
the South, is not as valu- 
able for pasture, as, like 
the sorghums, it some- 
times contains prussic 
acid. 

Brome grass is the 

most important pasture 

grass of the Dakotas and 

Saskatchewan. It is also 

,^. ^ used extensively for pas- 

Brome-grass. (Piper, Forage ^ ^ 

Plants.) ture in Kansas and 




Fig. 78. 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 283 

Nebraska. It is quite resistant to drought and tramping, 
furnishes an abundance of pasture both in the early spring 
and in the late fall, and is very palatable. It is nearly 
as valuable as bluegrass. 

Rye. — Fall-sown rye is sometime used for pasture. It 
is hardy, grows on poor soils, comes early in the spring and, 
under optimum conditions, may provide pasture both in 
the fall and again in the spring. It is often possible to 
obtain some kind of a crop after the rye, or clover and grass 
seed may be sown in it in the spring. Rye should be pas- 
tured closely in the spring as soon as growth has really 
started. If it is pastured for only a short time, a good crop 
of grain often may be harvested from it. Grain should be 
fed with rye pasture, as it is very succulent and laxative. 
Although it is not advisable to make a practice of sowing 
rye for pasture, it is often profitable when other pasture is 
scarce. 

It is especially good before the other pastures come in the 
early spring for ewes and nursing lambs, and also for sows 
and pigs. However, it will be noticed in the latter case 
that any bluegrass in the fence rows will be eaten off clean 
before the pigs will touch rye, showing that they much prefer 
the bluegrass. Also, if sheep are allowed other pasture, they 
will not go back to rye. It often is profitable, especially 
when rye is badly lodged, to turn in hogs to harvest it when 
ripe. If milch ^cows are pastured upon rye, it imparts a 
bitter fiavor to the milk which is quite offensive. Green 
rye is often used for soiling. 

Oats alone are seldom used for pasture. However, as 
has already been mentioned, oats and peas are often sown 
together and u^ed for pasture or soihng. 



284 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Barley is sometimes sown in the spring and used for pas- 
ture in the North. 

Wheat is seldom sown for pasture. However, when it 
becomes so badly lodged that it is impossible to harvest it 
for the grain, it makes good pasture for hogs. " Hogging 
down " wheat, however, is quite expensive unless it cannot 
be harvested in any other way. 

Corn is seldom pastured green, although it is used in many 
systems of soiling. 

It is a common custom in the newer parts of the corn-belt 
to husk the corn in the field, leaving the stalks stand. These 




Fig. 79. — Hogging down corn. (Iowa Experiment Station.) 

are pastured by turning in cattle, horses, and sheep. Stalk- 
fields pastured in this way will furnish but little more than a 
maintenance ration and should be supplemented by other 
feeds if much growth or fattening is expected. '' Corn-stalk 
disease," a mysterious and usually fatal disease, sometimes 
attacks animals which are turned into stalk-fields during the 
fall and early winter. No one seems to know the cause, 
means of prevention, or cure for '' corn-stalk disease." 
Less frequently it attacks horses and cattle which are fed 
on cured corn stover or corn fodder. It seems to be more 



PASTURE OR FORAGE, AND SOILING CROPS 



285 



prevalent when the growth of the corn plant has been pre- 
maturely checked by severe drought or early frost. Some 
authorities believe that its poisonous nature is due to the 
presence of prussic acid, as in the case of immature, second- 
growth sorghum. 
Others believe it to 
be due to a mold or 
fungus on the plant. 
Because of the danger 
from cornstalk dis- 
ease, whatever it may 
be, the author does 
not recommend the 
use of stalk pasture 
for valuable animals. 
On account of the 
cost and the scarcity 
of farm labor, " hog- 
ging down " corn is 
coming into favor as 
an economical way of 
harvesting part of 
the corn crop. It 
apparently has been 
demonstrated that 
more pounds of pork 
may be produced 
from an acre of corn if it is harvested by the hogs them- 
selves than if the grain is husked and fed to them.^ For 
the best results, hogs should not be given access to the 

1 See Missouri Bui. 95 and 110, and Iowa Bui. 143. 




- Meadow-fescue. 
Forage Plants.) 



(Piper, 



286 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

entire field, but should be limited to that portion of the 
field which they will clean up in ten days or two weeks. 
This may be done by means of a movable or temporary 
fence. Before being turned in, they should be brought 
gradually to a full-feed of new corn. They should be turned 
in when the dent has just been formed in the corn kernel. 
Cowpeas, soybeans, rape, rye, or other forage crops planted 
in the corn after the last cultivation add considerably to the 
feeding value. An adjoining pasture of clover or alfalfa is 
advantageous if there is no legume forage in the cornfield. 
If no leguminous forage is supplied with the corn, the hogs 
should receive some tankage, middlings, or linseed meal in 
addition. 

Perennial rye grass is the principal pasture grass of 
Europe, occupying the same position there as bluegrass 
holds in the United States. However, it is of little impor- 
tance in the United States. 

Meadow fescue is used some for pasture in Kansas and 
Nebraska. It is quite palatable and is considered especially 
valuable for fattening cattle. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
SILAGE 

Silage consists of finely cut plants, harvested before 
maturity while they still contain considerable water, and 
compressed compactly in a silo and allowed to ferment. 
During the fermentation a part of the sugars in the plant 
are broken down, with the formation of organic acids, such 
as lactic, acetic, and butyric acids and carbon dioxide gas. 
After a certain amount of these acids have been formed, 
they act as an antiseptic and prevent further fermentation. 
The resulting product is a succulent, palatable, nutritious, 
and cheap feed which may be used to advantage for nearly 
all classes of livestock. 

Silos are of various types. They may be made of wooden 
staves, of lath and plaster, of brick, of stone, of concrete, of 
concrete blocks, of concrete staves, of steel, and of vitrified 
tile. In semiarid parts of the country, a pit is dug in the 
ground and used as a silo. It is not within the province of 
this book to discuss the relative merits of the different 
types of silos. There are, however, three essential features 
which a good silo should have. (1) The walls of the silo 
should be impervious to moisture and air. The fundamental 
principle in the preservation of silage is the retention of 
moisture within the silage and the exclusion of air. For 
this reason, the silo wall must be non-porous. Moisture 
must be prevented from passing out and air from passing 

287 



288 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

in. (2) The walls of a silo must be strong enough to resist 
the bursting pressure of the silage which acts outward in all 
directions as the silage settles. The friction of the silage 
on the walls and the weight of the material of the walls pro- 
duce a crushing action which is very great near the bottom 
of the silo. (3) To permit the silage to settle freely and to 
prevent the formation of air pockets, the walls should be 
smooth on the inside and not have shoulders or offsets. 
Air pockets result in more or less spoiled silage. 

There are a number of advantages in using the silo, but 
the greatest of them is the possibiHty it affords of utiHzing 
all the corn crop. There was a time when land was cheap 
and there was an abundance of coarse feed at hand that 
had little market value. Under these conditions it was 
not a serious loss if a portion of the corn crop was wasted. 
At the present time, with both farm lands and feeds high 
in price, conditions are quite different. When the ears of 
corn are husked in the ordinary way and the stalks left in 
the field, from 60 to 70 per cent of the nutritive value of the 
corn crop is taken with the ears, while 30 to 40 per cent 
remains with the stalks. It is possible to utiUze a small 
portion of this nutriment by turning stock into the stalk 
fields in the ordinary manner. However, the benefits de- 
rived in this way are comparatively small and often not 
worth the risk of losing valuable animals from corn-stalk 
disease. 

The next most important advantage of silage is its palat- 
ability. A silo not only preserves the succulence of the 
green fodder but the bacterial fermentations which the fodder 
undergoes develops large amounts of organic acids and other 
substances which add greatly to the palatability of the 



SILAGE 289 

silage. The feeding of silage in the winter makes it possible 
to keep the animals in practically the same condition that 
they are when on pasture in the summer. A good quality 
of silage is so palatable that many animals will eat it in 
preference to grain, and cows will eat silage even when on 
good pasture. 

As compared with the cutting, shocking, and husking 
of the corn, the use of the silo is a distinct saving of labor. 
When putting corn in the silo it is handled but once and 
then under the most favorable conditions. That is to say, 
it is handled in large quantities and with an organized force 
and under favorable weather conditions. The use of the 
silo is also a cheap and convenient way of handling large 
amounts of coarse fodder. 

In unpropitious weather, the hay crop may be put in 
the silo as a means of saving the crop. 

Although other crops may be put in the silo, corn is prac- 
tically the only one so used in the corn-belt. Corn and 
cowpeas are sometimes used, as the peas add considerable 
protein to the silage. Clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, soybeans, 
kafir, sorghum, cannery refuse, beet pulp, etc., are sometimes 
put in the silo. 

Corn silage. — Corn for the silo should not be cut too 
green. The tendency, until quite recently, has been to cut 
corn for the silo while it was still in the milk stage. A 
sweeter silage,, containing a higher percentage of nutrients, 
is obtained by cutting the corn when it is just past the milk 
stage and the lower leaves of the stalk are beginning to die. 
If cut too ripe, the desired succulence is lost. If, for any 
reason, the corn has passed the desired stage, the succulence 
of the silage ipay be improved by running a stream of water 



290 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

through a hose into the silo while it is being filled, or by direct- 
ing the water into the top of the distributor, where it is 
knocked into a fine spray and mixed with the silage. 

Frosted or soft corn is practically as valuable for §ilage 
as sound corn. At the Iowa Station ^ it was found that the 
husked ears from soft corn made satisfactory silage when 
ensiled without the stalk and leaves. Thus the silo offers 
a solution to the soft corn problem. 

According to Eckles at the Missouri Experiment Station,^ 
the average yield of silage per acre when corn varies in 
yield from 30 to 100 bushels is as follows : 

Yield of Corn Yield of Silage 

Bushels Tons 

30 6 

40 8 

50 10 

60 12 

80 16 

100 20 

The tonnage of silage per given yield of corn varies, of 
course, with the locality and the season. 

The average chemical composition of corn silage is as 
follows: water, 73.6 per cent; ash, 2.1 per cent; crude 
protein, 2.7 per cent; crude fiber, 7.8 per cent; nitrogen- 
free extract, 12.9 per cent; and fat, 0.9 per centi Its net 
energy value is 16.6 therms per 100 pounds. In composi- 
tion and energy value corn silage resembles green clover 
except that the latter is considerably higher in crude protein. 

It is often said that a part of the feeding value of corn 
fodder is lost through fermentations which take place in 
the silo. This is true in part. A part of the protein is 

1 Unpublished results. 2 Bui. 103. 



SILA GE 291 

changed to non-protein. Furthermore, some of the starch 
and sugar is changed to acetic acid (found in vinegar), 
lactic acid (found in sour milk), butyric acid (found in stale 
butter), and other organic acids, which, although probably 
not as high in feeding value as the carbohydrates from which 
they are formed, add materially to the flavor of the silage. 
A certain amount of energy is lost from the ensiled corn as 
heat, hberated during fermentation. These losses of nutri- 
ents, however, are certainly not as great as the losses due 
to weathering occurring in field-cured fodder. The digest- 
ibihty of the nutrients of corn silage and corn fodder are 
about the same. The increased consumption of roughage 
which otherwise is dry and unpalatable makes this the most 
economical method of handling the corn crop. 

Until recently, corn silage has been used primarily as a 
feed for dairy cattle. Lately, however, it has come into use 
as a feed for cattle and sheep of all classes and is being used 
to some extent for horses and mules. In feeding silage one 
always should bear in mind that it is not a concentrate, but 
a non-nitrogenous roughage containing a very large amount 
of water, and, consequently should be properly supple- 
mented with other feeds. 

For dairy cows, 25 to 50 pounds of silage per day may 
be fed, 30 to 40 pounds being a good average. It should be 
fed so as to remove several inches from the top of the silo 
every day, particularly in warm weather, in order to prevent 
unnecessary decay and waste. It should be fed only after 
milking and any that is uneaten should be removed, as it is 
Hable to impart a disagreeable flavor and odor to the milk. 
If frozen, it should be allowed to thaw out before feeding. 
Moldy silage should not be fed. About 5 to 10 per cent more 



292 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

milk is obtained from one pound of dry substance in the 
form of silage than from the same amount of dry substance 
in corn fodder. It should be fed with clover or alfalfa hay 
and a mixture of concentrates, which should contain linseed 
meal, cottonseed meal, gluten feed, or some other nitrogenous 
concentrate. 

For Beef Cattle. — There is no roughage which is of more 
importance to the producer of beef cattle than silage. Just 
as pasture is almost essential in summer for breeding cattle, 
so is silage necessary in winter. In fact, experiments 
now in progress at the Illinois Station seem to indicate 
that silage may be substituted in large part for pasture in 
the summer. Corn silage with clover or alfalfa hay will 
bring the breeding herd through the winter in good shape. 
Oat straw or corn stover may be used as the dry roughage, 
if a pound of Unseed meal or cottonseed meal is added to the 
ration. 

For fattening cattle, corn silage is one of the most eco- 
nomical feeds if properly used. It produces exceptionally 
cheap gains in the early part of the feeding period. In 
feeding silage to fattening cattle they should be fed as much 
of it as they will consume at the beginning of the feeding 
period. This should be 40 to 50 pounds per day per 1000 
pounds hve weight. Most failures in feeding silage to fatten- 
ing cattle are due to the fact that the feeder started them 
in on a small amount and gradually increased it. Corn 
silage may furnish all or only part of the roughage in the 
ration of fattening steers. In either case, nitrogenous con- 
centrates, such as Unseed meal or preferably cottonseed meal, 
should be fed with corn in addition to the roughage. Fed 
as the sole roughage, a ton of silage is equal to one-half ton 



SILAGE 293 

rof clover hay. Corn silage, when properly supplemented, 
is a more profitable roughage than clover or alfalfa hay. 
However, the addition of a small amount of dry roughage, 
such as clover or alfalfa hay or oat straw, to a ration of 
silage, corn, and cottonseed or hnseed meal usually makes 
the gains more economical. When fed with silage, corn 
should be shelled, as the cob adds too much indigestible 
roughage to the ration. 

For Sheep. — Corn silage is used by many sheepmen for 
all classes of sheep. On the other hand, many sheepmen 
have no use for it. Especial care should be taken not to 
feed sour, moldy, or frozen silage to sheep. Unlike the feed- 
ing of silage to cattle, sheep should be started in on a small 
quantity of silage (about one-half pound) and the amount 
gradually increased. Corn silage up to three or four pounds 
daily with clover or alfalfa hay makes a good winter ration 
for the breeding ewe up until lambing time, when some 
concentrates should be fed. Up to two or three pounds 
daily, it may be used profitably in the ration of fattening 
lambs and sheep. A ration of corn, corn silage, and clover or 
alfalfa hay is usually conducive to good gains. If only a 
small amount of the legume hay is used, protein should be 
added in the form of linseed meal or cottonseed meal. Oat 
straw and silage seem to make a very good roughage for 
fattening wethers. It should be noted that sheep are very 
susceptible to spoiled silage and great care should be exer- 
cised in feeding silage to sheep in warm weather when decom- 
position is Hkely to take place. 

Horses. — Silage may be successfully fed to horses if the 
proper precautions are taken in its use. It is of utmost 
importance that silage fed to horses should be free from mold, 



294 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

as certain molds which grow on silage are deadly poison to 
horses and mules. Thus, Rusk and Grindley, at the Illinois 
Experiment Station/ killed an entire lot of five horses in 6 
to 22 days by feeding moldy silage. Corn which is to be 
used for silage for horses should be fairly mature, as imma- 
ture corn causes a sour silage which is apt to produce 
colic. It is also unsafe to feed horses frozen silage on 
account of danger of cohc. Horses should be gradually 
accustomed to silage, and they should not be fed too heav- 
ily on it. 

The greatest value of silage as a horse feed is to carry 
work horses during the slack season through the winter and 
to act as a supplement to pasture during drought. For 
wintering horses, hay is the only other feed which need be 
used in the ration, unless a httle Unseed meal or cottonseed 
meal is given for the additional protein which it contains. 
They should be started on about 5 pounds of silage daily 
per 1000 pounds live weight, the grain and hay being grad- 
ually decreased, and the silage increased until, at the end 
of a month, the ration is made up of 20 pounds of silage 
and 10 pounds of hay per 1000 pounds five weight. Corn, 
cottonseed meal, hay, and silage is a profitable ration for 
fattening draft horses for the market. Not much silage 
should be used in the ration of work horses, as it is too suc- 
culent and too bulky. 

For Hogs. — Silage should not be used in the rations of 
hogs, as it is too bulky. ' 

Clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, and soybeans may be put in 
the silo. They make a fairly palatable silage which is high 
in protein. They should be cut at the same time as for 

1 Unpublished results. 



' SILAGE 295 

hay-making, and care should be taken to pack them thor- 
oughly in the silo. However, it is usually inadvisable to 
use these crops for silage if they can be made into hay. 

Sweet sorghum, ferterita, milo, kafir corn and the other 
sorghums are extensively used for silage in the West and 
Southwest where the rainfall is insufficient for corn. In 
palatability and feeding value, they are nearly equal to 
corn silage. Sorghum should be quite well matured before 
it is put in the silo or it will make a very sour silage, due to 
the large amount of sugar present. 

Sorghum bagasse, the residue of the cane mills, and the 
leaves of the cane make a fairly good silage and should not 
be wasted. 

Cannery refuse, such as corn husks and pea vines, is 
sometimes put in the silo. The feeding value of such refuse 
is usually quite low. 

Beet pulp sometimes is put in the silo. It makes a 
valuable silage. 



CHAPTER XIX 
MISCELLANEOUS ROUGHAGES 

Roots. — Under this term are included all plants whose 
roots, tubers, bulbs, or other underground vegetative parts 
are used for feed. Roots are very succulent in nature, 
containing from 85 to 90 per cent or more of water. Al- 
though they are usually classed with the roughages, they 
have a very high nutritive value. Henry ^ states, " Roots 
may be regarded as watered concentrates high in available 
energy for the dry matter which they contain ... a 
pound of dry matter in roots has the same feeding value as 
a pound of corn, wheat, barley, or oats." They may be 
used to advantage with practically all classes of live stock. 
They are highly relished and have a peculiarly beneficial 
effect upon the digestion and general thrift of animals. The 
only objection to their general use is the cost and difficulty 
of growing, harvesting, and storing them. Inasmuch as 
corn silage is quite similar in nature and gives nearly as good 
results, it usually can be substituted for roots in general 
farm feeding, although the latter are almost absolutely 
necessary in the rations of show animals. 

The most common roots used for stock feeding in this 
country are mangels (stock beets) and sugar beets. Car- 
rots, rutabagas, turnips, potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, 
chufas, and cassava also are used sometimes. 

1 "Feeds and Feeding," 14th ed., p. 193. 
296 



MISCELLANEOUS ROUGHAGES 



297 



Mangels or Mangel-wurzels. — The average chemical com- 
position of mangels is as follows : water, 90.9 per cent ; 
ash, 1.1 per cent; crude protein, 1.4 per cent; crude fiber, 
0.9 per cent; nitrogen-free extract, 5.5 per cent; and fat, 
0.2 per cent. The net energy value is 4.6 therms per 100 
pounds. Their actual feeding value, however, is much 
greater than their chemical composition indicates. They 
are especially valuable in keeping the digestive system in 




Fig. 81. — Mangels. (Cornell Experiment Station.) 

good condition. Their most important use is to promote 
growth in young animals and to stimulate milk production. 
If fed in too large quantities, they are liable to cause scour- 
ing. They are commonly sliced before feeding. 

Milk cows a^d beef cattle may be fed 20 to 30 pounds 
per day. Young calves may be fed two or three pounds per 
day, the amount being increased as they grow older. In 
England as much as 100 pounds per day are fed cattle which 
are being fattened. Mangels are not usually fed to horses, 
but there is no apparent reason why a few pounds daily 



298 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



would not be beneficial. They may be fed to brood sows 
in large quantities in winter and to fattening hogs in limited 
quantities. Hogs may be turned in on a field of mangels 
and allowed to harvest the crop if they are fed grain in 
addition. Mangels may be used for feeding sheep. If fed 
in large quantities for extended periods of time, they are 

liable to cause renal and 
urinary calculi, sometimes re- 
sulting in the death of the 
animal so affected.' Feeding 
them in large quantities to 
pregnant ewes may result in 
lambs with so-called '' water- 
bellies." 

Sugar Beets. — Sugar beets 
have a higher 'feeling value, 
pound for pound, for fattening 
animals than mangels, as they 
contain considerably more dry 
matter, especially in the form 
of sugar. On account of the 
increased cost of production, 
however, it is usually more 
profitable for the farmer to grow mangels. For growing 
animals and for milk production, they are no more valuable 
than mangels, although, owing to their high sugar content, 
they are usually better relished. The cull beets of the sugar 
factories are quite valuable. Sugar beets are sUced and fed 
in the same manner as mangels. 

Carrots are used especially for breeding horses, show 
horses, and horses which are not at hard work. They are 




Fig. 82. — Sugar beet. (Living- 
ston, Field Crop Production.) 



MISCELLANEOUS ROUGHAGES 



299 



too laxative to be fed in quantity to driving horses. They 
may also be used for milk cows and other stock, but are 
usually considered too expensive for these purposes. 




arrets. (Cornell Experiment Station.) 



Rutabagas or Swedes are grown extensively in Great 
Britain and in Canada. Sheep prefer them to all other 
roots. They may be used for all classes of farm animals. 

Turnips are often grown as a catch crop. They are 
quite watery and are not as satisfactory for stockfeeding as 
some of the other roots. They are used mainly for sheep, 
])ut may be fed to cattle. 

Potatoes. — Undersized potatoes are often used for feed, 
particularly for" hogs. They should be cooked and fed with 
dry concentrates. The water in which they are cooked 
should be discarded as it may be poisonous. 

Jerusalem artichokes are sometimes used for stock feeding, 
especially for hogs. The crop is permitted to grow until 



300 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



killed by frost, when hogs are turned in and allowed to har- 
vest the tubers which the plant produces. 

Chufas are grown to a certain extent in the South and the 
tubers harvested by hogs. 

Cassava also is grown somewhat in the extreme South, 
the roots sometimes being used for stock feed. 




Fig. 84. — Rutabagas. (Cornell Experiment Station.) 



Peat is often sprinkled or soaked in molasses and sold 
under some trade name at a fancy price. Much gross mis- 
representation is made in advertising such feeds, claiming 
that they have a very high nutritive value, that they pre- 
vent and cure disease, and other unwarranted statements. 
As a matter of fact, peat has a nutritive value about half 
that of straw. Finely ground peat is also used sometimes 
as an adulterant of tankage. 

Alfalfa meal is made by grinding alfalfa hay. It is often 



MISCELLANEOUS ROUGHAGES 



301 



sprinkled with molasses. Alfalfa meal properly made has 
a very high feeding value, being nearly equal to bran. 
However, a large part of the alfalfa meal on the market is 
made from alfalfa chaff or the lower grades of alfalfa hay so 
that its feeding value is usually lower than its cost. When 
such feeds are used the farmer 
should either prepare them him- 
self or make certain that the 
manufacturer is using good alfalfa 
hay in the manufacture of his 
product. Even then he should 
remember that alfalfa meal is no 
higher in feeding value than the 
alfalfa hay and molasses of which 
it is made. 

Rape is not a grass but belongs 
to the mustard family. It stores 
its nutriment in the leaves and 
stems somewhat like cabbage. It 
may be sown at any time from 
early spring until August and is 
ready for use in 8 to 12 weeks. It 

is a cool weather plant and does Fig. 85. — Cassava. (Duggar, 
, . , , . , Southern Field Crops.) 

better m the early sprmg or late 

fall. If sown early in the spring and not pastured too 
heavily, it may be pastured again in the fall. It is used 
extensively for soiHng. 

Although cattle may be profitably pastured on rape, 
its greatest use is for sheep and swine. Sheep upon rape 
pasture and receiving no grain make very fair gains. It 
is more valuable as sheep pasture than bluegrass. Access 




302 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



to clover or bluegrass pasture will be beneficial, however, 
and will aid in preventing bloat. As a forage for hogs, 
rape ranks a little below alfalfa and red clover, but higher 
than bluegrass, soy beans, cowpeas, and rye.^ It should be 
supplemented by clover pasture and one-half to two-thirds 
full-feed of corn, or by corn and tankage, corn and Unseed 
meal, or corn and middlings. 

Oftentimes white hogs if allowed to run in wet rape will 
develop bad sores on their backs and sides. Animals on 




Fig. 86. — Hogs in rape. (Missouri Experiment Station.) 

rape have a craving for salt, which should be supplied in 
larger amounts than under ordinary conditions. 

Rape should be used more generally in the corn-belt as a 
temporary pasture, especially for pork production. It is one of 
the most valuable of the non-legume pasture and soiling crops. 

Cabbage is sometimes used as a roughage for sheep, 
especially for show animals. It is used in England for milch 
cows to a certain extent. 

1 Ohio Exp. Sta. Bui. 242; Missouri Exp. Sta. Bui. 110. 



MISCELLANEOUS ROUGHAGE^ 



303 



Kohlrabi is a member of the mustard family. It has a 
short, thick stem. It is sometimes used as a substitute for 




Fig. 87. — Kohlrabi. (Cornell Experiment Station.) 

the root crops in the Middle West as it is more easily har- 
vested. It also may be pastured. 

Kale is another member of the mustard family. It is 
used in England and France as a soiHng crop. In the 
United States it is grown in New England and along the 



304 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

north Pacific coast. It is fed as a soiling crop, particularly 
to dairy cows. It should not be fed during milking as it 
may taint the milk. 

Beet tops have considerable feed value. They should 
be fed in limited amounts with dry roughage. 

Pumpkins are sometimes planted with the corn and used 
for stockfeeding. They are usually fed to milk cows and 
sometimes to hogs. Their feeding value may be compared 
with that of roots. 

Apple pomace, remaining from the manufacture of cider, 
is sometimes used for stockfeeding. It is usually dumped 
in large piles near the cider press. The rotten portion on the 
outside is removed and the fermented pomace used. A 
dairyman in northern Ohio informs the author that he has 
used apple pomace for several years for his milk cows with 
satisfactory results. He claims that it is as valuable as 
corn silage and may be substituted for it in the dairy ration. 



CHAPTER XX 
THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 

We have learned that a maintenance ration is one which 
is just sufficient to support the vital functions of the animal 
when it is at rest, without any loss or gain of body tissue. 
If an excess of feed above the requirements for mainten- 
ance is given the animal, there may be some production, i.e. 
the animal may do work, or it may produce milk, or meat, 
or wool, or some other product which has an economic 
value. However, not all the excess feed above the main- 
tenance requirement can be recovered by the animal in the 
form of some useful product. As a matter of fact, a large 
part of it is wasted by the animal in some form or other. 
It already has been shown that the horse can recover in 
the form of work only about one-third of the net energy of 
the ration. Similarly, meat-producing and dairy animals 
can recover only a fraction of their ration in the form of 
meat or milk. 

The efficiency of a ration is its value expressed in terms 
of the product for which the animal is fed. In other words, 
the efficiency of a ration expresses the amount of feed re- 
quired to produce a given result, such as a pound of gain, 
or a pound of milk. The efficiency of the ration must not 
be confused with the economy of the ration as expressed in 
dollars and cents. As a matter of fact, the ration which 
is most efficient is often uneconomical, owing to its high 
X 305 



306 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

cost.* Thus in practical feeding operations, not only the 
efficiency but also the cost of the rations must be considered. 
In general, efficiency depends largely upon two general 
classes of factors, one class concerning the ration itself, and 
the other class concerning the animal which consumes the 
ration. 

Among the factors relating to the ration itself are the 
following : the physical composition, chemical composition, 
digestibility, amount, and preparation of the ration. The 
principal factors concerning the animal are : the species, 
type and grade, age, capacity, temperament, and previous 
treatment of the animal, the length of the fattening period, 
and the temperature and other climatic conditions. 

The physical composition of the ration, i.e. the nature 
of the feedingstuffs which make up the ration, is a large 
factor in determining the efficiency. It is commonly known 
that certain combinations of feedingstuffs are more efficient 
for certain purposes than certain other combinations. For 
example, a ration of corn and clover hay is more efficient 
for producing gains than a ration of barley and clover hay, 
although they both contain practically the same amounts 
of digestible protein, total nutriment, and net energy. A 
large part of the work of animal husbandry investigators 
has consisted of a comparison of different rations in order 
to determine what combinations of feedingstuffs are most 
efficient for different purposes. Obviously, the stockfeeder 
always should endeavor to feed a ration which will make 
the production as efficient and economical as possible. 

The chemical composition of the ration determines its 
efficiency to a large extent. A ration which is deficient in 
any of its nutrients, or a ration which contains an excess of 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 307 

any nutrient is not as efficient as one which suppHes the 
proper amounts and proportions of the nutrients, i.e. a 
balanced ration. Thus a ration of corn, hnseed meal, and 
clover hay is more efficient for beef production than one of 
corn and timothy hay, largely because the former ration 
supphes more nearly the proper proportions of the different 
nutrients. 

The digestibility of the ration has a marked effect upon 
its efficiency. Obviously the more digestible the ration is, 
the greater is its efficiency. Thus a ration consisting largely 
of the more digestible concentrates is more efficient than one 
consisting largely of the less digestible roughages as the un- 
digested part of the ration has no value to the animal body. 
Of course, the relative prices of concentrates and rough- 
ages also must be considered in formulating the ration, as 
this will determine to a large extent their proportions in the 
ration. 

The Amount of the Ration. — When one considers that 
a certain amount of feed is always necessary for mainte- 
nance, it would seem that the larger the amount fed above 
maintenance the more efficient would be the gains. On 
the other hand, as has been stated, a full-feed ration con- 
taining a fairly large proportion of roughage to concentrates 
is not digested as thoroughly as a smaller ration. In an 
experiment at the Illinois Experiment Station ^ by Mum- 
ford, Grindley,- Emmett, and Bull with 4 lots of four 
2-year-old steers each, all lots were fed corn and clover 
hay for 22 weeks, after which time linseed meal was 
introduced into the ration. The feeding period extended 
over 37 weeks. One lot received as much feed as they 

^ Unpublished data. 



308 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



would eat readily; another was given a little more than a 
maintenance ration; another, an amount of feed equal to 
the maintenance ration plus one-third of the difference 
between the maintenance and full-feed rations; and an- 
other an amount equal to the maintenance ration plus two- 
thirds of the difference between the maintenance and full- 
feed rations. The average daily gains, the amounts of 
feed to produce a pound of gain, and the amounts of dry 
substance to produce a pound of gain were as follows : 





Average 
Daily 
Gain 


Feed per Pound of Gain 


Dry Sub- 
stance PER 
Pound op 
Gain 


Lot 


Concen- 
trates 


Hay 


Full feed .... 
Two-thirds feed . . 
One-third feed . . . 
Maintenance . . . 


Lb. 

2.13 
1.79 
1.32 
0.70 


Lb. 

8.25 

8.13 

8.22 

10.07 


Lb.^ 

2.75 
2.63 
2.66 
3.29 


Lb. 

9.63 

9.40 

9.51 

11.61 



The results of this experiment indicate that a ration 
slightly above maintenance is less efficient for producing 
gains than larger rations. However, there was little or no 
difference in the efficiency of the full feed, two-thirds feed, 
and one-third feed rations for the production of gains. 

It is of importance to note, however, that when animals 
are being fattened for the market, the degree of finish also 
must be considered. As an animal possessing a high degree 
of finish is ordinarily worth more per pound than an animal 
possessing a lower degree of finish, it usually will be more 
economical from the market standpoint to feed as large a 
ration as possible without throwing the animal off feed, in 
order to attain a high degree of finish. 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 309 

In feeding dairy cows, the ration . should be as large as 
possible without causing digestive derangements, if it is all 
used for milk production. However, if part of the ration 
is used for the storage of body fat (as indicated by a con- 
siderable gain in weight, especially in the mature animal), 
a smaller ration will prove more efficient. (See page 144.) 

The preparation of the ration often is assumed to have 
considerable influence upon the efficiency of production. 
We already have seen that in most cases grinding, crushing, 
cooldng, soaking, fermenting, and chaffing feed does not 
materially increase its digestibility but, on the contrary, in 
certain instances it decreases it. The preparation of the 
feed has practically the same effect upon the efficiency of a 
ration as it has upon its digestibility. 

Mumford, at the Illinois Station,^ concluded that for 
fattening steers, whole corn when fed with clover hay was 
more efficient than shelled corn and that, when hogs fol- 
lowed the steers, shelled corn was as efficient as ground corn. 
However, when feeding silage as a large part of the rough- 
age of the ration, it is more efficient if the corn is shelled. 
When cattle are not followed by hogs, it is usually more 
efficient to grind the corn. Also it is usually economical 
to grind the grain for heavy producing dairy cows and for 
horses at very hard work. From the results of elaborate 
experiments by Kennedy and Robbins at the Iowa Experi- 
ment Station ^ "upon the preparation of corn for hogs, it 
was concluded that hogs weighing under 200 pounds made 
the most economical gains when their corn was fed in the 
form of dry ear corn, and that hogs weighing over 200 
pounds made the most economical gains when their corn 

1 Bui. 103. 2 Bui. 106. 



310 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

was shelled and soaked in water 12 hours before feeding. 
King/ at the Indiana Experiment Station, concluded that 
with young hogs there is practically no difference in the re- 
sults obtained from ear corn and ground corn. However, 
after the hogs reach a weight of about 150 pounds, ground 
corn is slightly more efficient. Grinding usually increases 
the efficiency of wheat, barley, rye, emmer, and oats for 
beef cattle, for dairy cattle, for hogs, and, with the excep- 
tion of oats, for horses. Grain never should be ground for 
sheep except in the case of very young lambs. It is a com- 
mon saying among sheepmen that a sheep that cannot 
grind its own grain is not worth keeping. 

Cooking does not increase the efficiency of the ration 
except in the case of potatoes and beans when fed to swine. 
On the contrary, cooking usually decreases the efficiency of 
the ration. The same is true of steaming the ration. 

Soaking corn may be advantageous, especially when it 
becomes dried out, hard, and flinty. All grain that is diffi- 
cult of mastication should be either soaked or ground. 

Chaffed (or finely cut) hay or straw may be more efficient 
than whole hay or straw under certain conditions, as for 
horses at very hard work, or for heavy-producing milch cows ; 
but, in general, the practice is not recommended. Also there 
is no advantage in shredding corn stover, except that it is 
stored and handled more easily and makes better bedding. 

The species of animal has a marked influence upon the 
efficiency of the ration. Thus cattle ordinarily require 
about 8 pounds of concentrates and 5 pounds of roughage 
to produce one pound of gain, sheep require about 5 pounds of 
concentrates and 5 pounds of roughage to produce one 

^ Proceedings of the American Society of Animal Production for 1913. 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 



311 



pound of gain, while hogs require only about 5 pounds of 
concentrates to produce one pound of gain. Table 25, 
which is made up from results compiled by Jordan/ shows 
the comparative efficiency of different species of farm ani- 
mals to convert their feed into marketable products and 
into edible dry substance. 

Table 25.— Product from 100 Pounds of Digestible 
Organic Matter 



Animal 



Dairy cow- 
Dairy cow- 
Dairy cow 
Hog . 
Hog . 
Fowl . 
Fowl . 
Fowl . 
Sheep 
Sheep 
Steer . 
Steer . 



Product 



milk . . . 
cheese . . . 
butter . 
live weight . 
dressed carcass 



eggs . . . 
live weight . 
dressed carcass 
live weight . 
dressed carcass 
live weight . 
dressed carcass 



Total 
Amount 



Lh. 

139 
15 

6 
30 
25 
20 
20 
16 
14 

7 
13 

8 



Edible Dry 
Substance 



Lh. 

18 
9 
5 

16 
5 

4 

3 

3 



This table shows that the dairy cow and the hog give the 
greatest returns per 100 pounds of digestible organic matter, 
i.e., they utilize their rations most efficiently as far as the 
production of human food is concerned. The fowl ranks 
next, with the sheep and steer last. It is of interest to note 
that the returns, as a rule, vary directly with the amount 
of labor expended. Labor is a large factor in the produc- 
tion of dairy products, while it is reduced to a minimum 

" The Feeding of Animals," p. 405. 



312 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



in case of fattening steers. It should be noted also that the 
hog and fowl, although quite efficient in the utilization of 
their rations, cannot use large quantities of roughage, while 
the sheep and steer, although less efficient, can utilize large 
quantities of roughage which, otherwise, would be wasted 
ordinarily as far as its feeding value is concerned. Further- 
more, hogs and poultry are quite susceptible to disease, 
while sheep are subject to the ravages of dogs. 

The type and grade of animals have considerable in- 
fluence upon the efficiency of the ration. One does not 
select cows of pronounced beef type for the production of 
dairy products, as they do not convert their feed into milk 
as efficiently as do cows of the dairy type. On the other 
hand, one does not select steers of dairy conformation for 
fattening. Mumford at the Illinois Station ^ compared 
feeder steers of different types and market grades with the 
following results : 



Grade op Steers 


Beep Produced per 
Bushel of Cor^j 


Digestible Dry Sub- 
stance TO Produce one 
Pound op Gain 


Fancy 

Choice 

Good 

Medium 

Common 

Inferior 


Lb. 

9.74 
7.97 
7.99 
7.45 
8.13 
7.61 


Lb. 
9.95 

12.09 
12.08 
13.05 
12.00 
12.93 



These results indicate, other things being equal, that the 
better grades of animals are more efficient than the poorer 
grades. 



Bui. 90. 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS ■ 313 

Armsby and Fries at the Pennsylvania Station^ found 
that a pure-bred Angus steer utihzed his ration more efficiently 
than a scrub steer, primarily because the maintenance re- 
quirement of the pure-bred steer was less, leaving more 
energy available to produce flesh. 

Further, the mutton type sheep is a more efficient pro- 
ducer of meat than the fine wool type. On the other hand, 
the latter is a more efficient producer of wool. 

Fowls of the meat type are more efficient producers of 
meat than those of the egg type, while the latter are more 
efficient producers of eggs than the former. 

The conformation of the horse and the kind of work he 
is doing have an effect on the efficiency. Thus, horses of 
the draft type are most efficient for work of heavy draft, 
light harness horses for work of locomotion, and saddle 
horses for carrying a weight. 

The age of the animal has considerable influence upon 
the efficiency of gains. Other things being equal, the 
younger the animal, the greater is the efficiency. Older 
animals usually make larger daily gains than younger ones, 
but they are not made as efficiently as in the case of the 
younger animals. This is shown quite clearly in a com- 
pilation made by Henry and Morrison ^ from over 500 pig 
feeding trials, involving more than 2200 animals. A modi- 
fication of their table is as follows : 

1 Bui. 105. 2 " Feeds and Feeding," p. 569. 



314 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



Table 26. — Relation of Weight of Hogs to Efficiency of 

Gains 



Weight of Pigs 


Average Feed 
PER Day 


Average Feed 
PER 100 Lb. 
Live Weight 


Average Gain 
per Day 


Feed per 100 
Lb. Gain 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


15 to 50 


2.2 


6.0 


0.8 


293 


50 to 100 


3.4 


4.3 


0.8 


400 


100 to 150 


4.8 


3.8 


1.1 


437 


150 to 200 


5.9 


3.5 


1.2 


482 


200 to 250 


6.6 


2.9 


1.3 


498 


250 to 300 


7.4 


2.7 


1.5 


511 


300 to 350 


7.5 


2.4 


1.4 


535 



As shown by the table, production became less efficient 
as the pigs became heavier and, presumably, older. Similar 
results are shown in a compilation of cattle feeding trials 
made by the author. The average of 33 feeding trials with 
2-year-old steers showed a net energy consumption of 9.1 
therms for every pound of gain, while the average of 4 feed- 
ing trials with calves and yearhngs showed a net energy 
consumption of 6.3 therms for every pound of gain. 

Armsby ^ presents the following figures as representing 
the amounts of net energy above maintenance to produce 
a pound of gain in cattle. 



Age of Cattle 


Net Energy 


Months 


Therms 


3 


1.50 


6 


1.75 


12 


2.00 


18 


2.50 


24 


2.75 


30 


3.00 


mature 


3.50 



U. S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bui. 346. 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 315 

In another compilation by the author of results of experi- 
ments upon fattening cattle, 8 lots of 3-year old steers re- 
quired an average of 9.4 pounds of digestible organic matter 
to produce a pound of gain, 56 lots of 2-year-old steers re- 
quired 8.4 pounds of digestible organic matter, while 27 
lots of calves and yearlings required only 6.7 pounds of 
digestible organic matter to produce a pound of gain. 

After three years of experimentation with calves, year- 
lings, and two-year-olds Skinner and Cochel, at the Purdue 
Experiment Station,^ concluded that the rate of gain and 
the cost of gain increase with the increased age of cattle. 

It might be well to note, however, that the younger the 
animal is, the more care it will require, and the longer the. 
time necessary to finish the animal. Also the younger 
animal requires a larger proportion of expensive concen- 
trates in its ration than does the older animal. 

The Capacity of the Animal. — The capacity of the ani- 
mal in most cases has considerable influence upon the effi- 
ciency. If the animal has a small capacity, it can consume 
only a comparatively small amount of feed above the main- 
tenance requirement which is available for production. 
This makes the production expensive. On the other hand, 
if the animal has a large capacity, considerable more feed 
will be available for production. To illustrate this point, 
we will assume that a steer requires 12 pounds of feed daily 
for maintenance^ and 6 pounds of feed above maintenance 
to produce a pound of gain. If he eats only 18 pounds of 
feed and makes a gain of one pound, it will have taken 18 
pounds of feed to produce a pound of gain. However, if he 
consumes 24 pounds of feed and makes a gain of 2 pounds 

1 Purdue Bui. 146. 



316 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

per day, it will have taken 12 pounds of feed to produce a 
pound of gain ; while if he consumes 30 pounds of feed and 
makes a gain of 3 pounds, it will have taken only 10 pounds 
of feed to produce a pound of gain. Thus the animal hav- 
ing the larger capacity can utilize the ration more efficiently, 
as a larger proportion of the ration is available for produc- 
tive purposes. In general, animals of small capacity are 
expensive and inefficient machines for the transformation 
of feed into meat or milk. 

The temperament of the animal has considerable in- 
fluence upon the efficiency of the ration. Armsby ^ and 
Fries have shown that the maintenance requirement of a 
nervous, restless steer was 17 per cent greater than the 
maintenance requirement of a quiet, phlegmatic steer of 
the same age and weight. He found also that the mere 
act of standing increased the maintenance requirement 20 
per cent. Hence, fattening stock and dairy cows should 
receive no more exercise than necessary for their general 
health, and pains should be taken to remove all causes of 
excitement from them, such as females in heat, vicious dogs, 
etc. They should be well bedded in order to induce them 
to lie down as much as possible. It is important from an 
economic as well as from a humanitarian standpoint that 
one should treat the farm animals with kindness. 

The previous treatment of the animal may have con- 
siderable influence upon the efficiency. It is a matter of 
common knowledge among stockmen that a steer which is 
maintained through the winter on roughage alone will 
make more efficient gains in the spring when put on pasture 
than a steer which is given a more liberal ration through the 

1 Penn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 105. 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 317 

winter. However, in case of the young growing animal, 
growth may be so checked that the animal will never attain 
the broad, deep form of the typical meat animal, but will 
be tall, narrow, and upstanding. It is also common knowl- 
edge among feeders that range cattle, because of not being 
previously accustomed to grain, are not as efficient meat 
producers in the feed lot as native cattle which have been 
accustomed to grain. 

Dietrich ^ presents results of experiments with pigs which 
indicate that the maintenance requirement may be lowered 
by fasting the animal or by feeding only a small ration. 
He claims that the animal makes more efficient gains after 
such treatment. 

In an experiment at the Illinois Experiment Station ^ by 
Mumford, Grindley, Hall, Emmett, Bull, and Allison with 
steers, it was found that steers which had been on a main- 
tenance ration for some time made more efficient gains 
when put on full feed than steers which had been on a full- 
feed ration. 

Length of the Fattening Period. — Other conditions 
being equal, the longer the fattening period, the larger is 
the amount of feed required to produce a pound of gain. 
As only the excess of feed above the maintenance require- 
ment can be used for production, it is apparent that the 
longer the fattening period, the greater the amount of feed 
used by the anirjial for maintenance and, consequently, the 
less the amount of feed available to produce gains. For 
example, if a steer requiring 12 pounds of feed daily for 
maintenance can be fattened satisfactorily in 90 days, it 
will take less feed than if 168 days are taken to fatten him, 

1 111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 163. 2 Unpublished data. 



318 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

because in the shorter feeding period the feeder will save 
the feed required to maintain the steer for 78 days, i.e., 936 
pounds of feed. 

The Kansas Experiment Station ^ found the grain re- 
quired for 100 pounds of gain in the case of fattening steers 
was as follows : 



CiRAlN FOR 100 

Founds Gain 
Lh. 

Up to 56 days 730 

Up to 84 days 807 

Up to 112 days 840 

Up to 140 days 901 

Up to 168 days 927 

Up to 182 days 1000 



The length of the fattening period usually will depend to 
a large extent upon four factors : (1) the feedingstuffs avail- 
able, (2) the age of the animal, (3) the grade of the animal, 
and (4) the condition of the animal. 

When it is desired to feed a large proportion of roughage 
to concentrates, the fattening process is slow and a longer 
time is required to finish the animal than when a highly 
concentrated ration is fed. The relative cost of concen- 
trates and roughage should be considered in this connection. 
Younger animals usually require a longer time to finish 
than do more mature ones. Low grade feeders finish more 
quickly than do those of high grade at the same weight and 
in the same condition, because they usually are older. They 
can never reach a high degree of finish, however. Animals 
in good condition ordinarily require less time to finish than 
those in poor condition. 

1 Bui. 34. 



THE EFFICIENCY OF RATIONS 319 

Temperature and Climatic Conditions. — Climatic con- 
ditions may have considerable influence upon the efficiency 
with which an animal utiHzes its ration. It has been stated 
that in ordinary winter weather horses, hogs, and perhaps 
dairy cattle, unless properly sheltered, must oxidize a part 
of their ration to keep the body warm. In extremely cold 
weather, or in damp, windy, cold weather, or when given 
large amounts of very cold water to drink, cattle and sheep 
must do the same. Thus, the amount of the ration avail- 
able for production is lessened and the ration is less efficient 
for productive purposes, i.e., it requires more feed to pro- 
duce the same result. Also in very hot weather, especially 
if flies are bad, the animal becomes less efficient and the 
amount of production from a given amount of feed is 
decreased. 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE FERTILIZING VALUES OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 

In addition to the direct products of feeding, such as meat 
or milk, the feeder also has the manure as a more or less 
valuable by-product. It is not only of interest but also of 
practical value to know the fertilizing value of manure from 
the various feedingstuffs, and the factors which may affect 
its value. 

Ordinarily four mineral elements must be supplied or 
made available to conserve the fertiUty of the soil; viz., 
nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, and calcium, all of which 
are contained to a certain extent in the excreta of our farm 
animals. However, inasmuch as the amount of calcium 
in manure is small, only the nitrogen, potassium, and phos- 
phorus will be considered in this connection. In addition to 
the mineral elements, a certain amount of organic matter 
must be present in the soil to assist in making some of the 
mineral elements available and to improve the physical con- 
dition of the soil. 

The principal source of the fertihzing constituents of the 
excreta is, of course, the feed of the animal. It has already 
been shown that the animal does not digest all the ration, 
any undigested material passing off in the feces. It also 
was stated that, if a surplus of protein is fed above the de- 
mands of the body for repair, growth, and milk production, 
the excess is used for energy or fat production. In either 

320 



THE FERTILIZING VALUES OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 321 

case the nitrogen of the protein molecule is split off and ex- 
creted through the urine. Also small amounts of mineral 
matter, including potassium and phosphorus, are excreted 
in the urine, while larger amounts are excreted in the feces. 
In other words, all the nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus 
of the ration which is not permanently stored in the body 
(or used for milk production) is ultimately excreted and may 
be returned to the soil for fertihzer. Also, all the undigested 
organic matter of the feces may be returned to the soil to 
supply the humus. 

The amount of manure, both liquid and solid, is quite 
variable for the different farm animals under different con- 
ditions. According to Van Slyke ^ the amounts of manure 
produced for 1000 pounds of live weight by the different 
farm animals in one year are as follows : 



Animal 


Dung 


Urine 


Total 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Horse .... 


14,400 


3,600 


18,000 


Cow .... 


19,000 


8,000 


27,000 


Hog ... . 


18,300 


12,200 


30,500 


Sheep .... 


8,300 


4,200 


12,500 


Hen ... . 


8,500 




8,500 



Of primary importance in this connection is a knowledge 
of the proportiQn of each fertilizing constituent of the feed 
which may be recovered in the manure. At the lUinois 
Experiment Station,^ Mumford, Grindley, Emmett, and Bull 
fed eight two-year-old steers for a period of 37 weeks. The 
consumption and excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus 

* "Fertilizers aUd Crops," p. 294. 2 Unpublished data. 

Y 



322 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



were determined throughout the entire experiment. The 
ration and the average percentages of the total nitrogen 
and phosphorus contained in the ration which were excreted 
in the manure (feces and urine) were as follows : 



Week 



1- 5 

8-13 

17-22 

25-37 

1-37 



Ration 



Clover hay, 1 part ; corn, 1 part 
Clover hay, 1 part ; corn, 3 parts . 
Clover hay, 1 part ; corn, 5 parts , 
Clover hay, 1 part ; corn, 4 parts : 

linseed meal, 1 part 

Average 



Percent N. 
Excreted 



81.7 
86.5 
86.7 

90.4 
87.4 



Percent P. 
Excreted 



92.1 
95.8 
84.9 

80.7 
86.1 



During a digestion experiment at the Illinois Experiment 
Station ^ with six milch cows for 15 days, all of the nitrogen 
of the ration was excreted, 80 per cent being in the dung 
and urine and 20 per cent in the milk. Of the phosphorus 
consumed, about 73 per cent was excreted in the feces and 
urine, and 22 per cent in the milk. Of the potassium, 
76 per cent was excreted in the feces and urine, and 14 per 
cent in the milk. 

The Pennsylvania Station ^ ran a digestion experiment on 
two milk cows for 50 days. Eighty-five per cent of the 
nitrogen of the ration, 71 per cent of the phosphorus, and 
91 per cent of the potassium were recovered in the manure. 

In experiments by Grindley and associates with pigs at 
the lUinois Station ^ it was found that about 90 per cent of 
the nitrogen of the ration is returned in the feces and urine. 

» Unpublished data. 

2 Annual Report, 1899-1900. 

3 Unpublished data. 



THE FERTILIZING VALUES OF FEEDINGSTUF^S 323 

Laws and Gilbert at Rothamsted ^ obtained the following 
results : 



Animal 


Per cent op ash 

CONSTITUENT8 OF 

Feed in Manure 


Per cent op 

Nitrogen op Feed 

in Manure 


Horse at rest 

Horse at work 

Fat steer (mature) 

Fat sheep (mature) .... 

Fat pig 

Milch cow 

Calf 


100 
100 
98 
96 
96 
90 
46 


100 
100 
96 
96 
85 
75 
31 







Although these results are not conclusive by any means, 
yet it seems safe to assume that with fairly mature fattening 
or work animals about 90 per cent of the nitrogen, 75 per 
cent of the phosphorus, and 90 per cent of the potassium 
may be recovered in the manure. In case of milch cows not 
so much is recovered in the manure because some is excreted 
in the milk. 

The proportion of the organic matter of the ration which 
is recovered in the manure depends, of course, upon the 
amount of the organic matter digested. Thus feeds which 
are quite digestible will produce a manure low in organic 
matter, while feeds which are less digestible will produce 
more organic matter in the manure. Ordinarily about one- 
fourth of the organic matter of the ration is recovered in the 
manure. In experiments with steers by Mumford, Grindley, 
Emmett, and Bull at the Illinois Station,^ 26.6 per cent of 
the organic matter of the feed was recovered in the manure. 

1 Warlngton, " Chemistry of the Farm," p. 214. 
* Unpublished data. 



324 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Factors Affecting the Value of the Manure. — There are 
various factors affecting the value of the manure, among 
which may be mentioned the following: the feeds in the 
ration, the age of the animal, the species of animal, loss 
of the liquid manure, and losses by leaching and fermenta- 
tion. 

Feeds in the Ration. — Of course the more nitrogen, phos- 
phorus, and potassium there are in the ration the more there 
will be in the excreta and, consequently, the more valuable 
is the manure. Thus manure from a ration of corn and 
timothy hay is not nearly as valuable as manure from a 
ration of corn, cottonseed meal, and alfalfa hay. In general, 
the use of feeds high in nitrogen and mineral matter greatly 
increases the value of the manure. 

The age of the animal has an effect upon the value of the 
manure. The young animal will store considerable of the 
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium of its ration in the 
form of new tissue or growth, while the mature animal 
excretes all that is not used for maintenance. Also the 
manure from a milch cow is less valuable than the manure 
from a beef animal on the same ration because the milch 
cow excretes a part of the nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potassium in her milk, while the beef animal excretes all 
above the requirements for maintenance and growth in the 
manure. 

The species of animal has considerable effect upon the 
value of the manure. According to Van Slyke ^ the manure 
of the different farm animals contains the following per- 
centages of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium : 

1 " Fertilizers and Crops," p. 291. 



THE FERTILIZING VALUES OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 325 



Animal 


Water 


Nitrogen 


Phosphorus 


Potassium 


Horse 

Cow ..:... 

Pig 

Sheep 


Per cent 

78 
86 
87 
68 


Per cent 

0.70 
0.60 
0.50 
0.95 


Per cent 

0.11 
0.07 
0.15 
0.15 


Per cent 

0.45 
0.37 
0.33 
0.83 



Thus sheep manure is the most valuable. Horse manure ranks 
second, while cow manure ranks third, and pig manure last. 

Loss of Liquid Manure. — If the liquid manure or urine 
is not saved, the manure loses a large part of its fertilizing 
value. In case of the Illinois experiment with eight steers 
already mentioned, 49 per cent of the nitrogen excreted 
was in the urine, and 51 per cent in the feces. Practically 
all of the phosphorus was excreted in the dung. In the 
IlUnois and Pennsylvania experiments with milch cows al- 
ready noted, about one-third of the nitrogen consumed was 
excreted in the dung and one-half in the urine. Most of 
the phosphorus was excreted in the dung, and a larger part 
of the potassium was excreted in the urine. 

Van Slyke ^ presents the following table showing the rela- 
tive amounts of plant-food constituents in the dung and.urine : 





Total Nitrogen 


Total Phosphorus 


Total Potassium 




Excreted 


Excreted 


Excreted 




In Dung 


In Urine 


In Dung 


In Urine 


In Dung 


In Urine 




Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Per Cent 


Horse .... 


62 


38 


100 





56 


44 


Cow .... 


49 


51 


100 





15 


85 


Pig .... 


67 


33 


88 


12 


57 


43 


Sheep . . . 


52 


48 


95 


5 


30 


70 



Fertilizers and Crops," p. 296. 



326 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Thus, unless the urine is retained either in a cistern, by a 
concrete floor with curbing, by plenty of bedding, or unless 
the animal is on pasture, about half of the fertilizing value 
of the manure is lost. 

Losses hy Leaching and Fermentation. — The loss of the 
more soluble fertilizing constituents by leaching and fer- 
mentation is important. The amount washed out by rains 
may be considerable, especially if the barnyard is not paved 
or if it is located on the side of a hill. Experiments at the 
Cornell Experiment Station found that horse manure exposed 
to the weather from four to six months lost 40 to 60 per cent 
of its value due to leaching and fermenting. At the Ohio 
Station it was found that after exposure to the weather for 
three months steer manure had lost 28 per cent of its nitrogen, 
14 per cent of its phosphorus, and 58 per cent of its potassium. 
In this connection Van Slyke,^ makes the following statement : 
" Taking into consideration both the amount and avail- 
abiUty of the plant-food leached from stable manure, it is not 
an exaggeration to say that two-thirds of the plant food 
value is leached from much of the stable manure used on 
American farms." 

In addition to losses by leaching, much nitrogen may be 
lost from stored manure in the form of ammonia or free 
nitrogen, due to fermentation and decomposition. These 
losses are especially large if the manure is dry and loose. 
Thus horse and sheep manures are more hable to losses by 
fermentation than cow and pig manures, as the latter manures 
are moister and more compact than the former. In storing 
manure the farmer can obviate much of the loss due to fer- 
mentation by keeping the manure moist and compact. Even 

1 "Fertilizers and Crops," p. 306. 



THE FERTILIZING VALUES OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 327 

tlien probably about 15 or 20 per cent of the nitrogen will 
be lost. However, if no precautions are taken, fully 50 
per cent of the nitrogen may be lost by fermentation. 

Thus in order to get the most value from the manure, it 
should be hauled to the field and spread as soon as possible 
after it is produced, or it should be allowed to accumulate 
in the stalls or in covered sheds in compact and moist con- 
dition, sufficient bedding being used to keep the animals 
clean, and then hauled to the fields at convenient intervals. 
In no case should it be allowed to heat and ferment before 
being spread if its full value is to be secured. In live-stock 
farming the rotation should be so planned that there is always 
a place to haul and spread manure as soon as possible after 
it is produced. 

The Commercial Values of Feeds as Fertilizers. — Most 
of us do not think of our ordinary feedingstuffs as having 
a commercial value as fertilizers. However, as a matter of 
fact, the lower grades of tankage are often appfied directly 
to the land as a fertilizer, while in the South cottonseed meal 
is often used as a fertilizer. Ordinarily the stock-farmer of 
the corn-belt does not apply the feeds directly to the soil 
but he first obtains their feeding value by feeding them to 
his animals and then apphes the manure to the soil, thus 
obtaining both their nutritive value and from 80 to 90 per 
cent of their fertiUzing value. Inasmuch as all feeding- 
stuffs have a certain fertiUzing value, it is of interest and 
value to know just what some of the common feeds are worth 
as fertilizers after their value as feed has been obtained by 
the animal. We have seen that about 90 per cent of the 
nitrogen, 90 per cent of the potassium, and 75 per cent of the 
phosphorus of thfe ration is recovered in the manure. Know- 



S2S 



PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 



ing the amounts of these elements in the feeds, one may 
multiply them by the per cent of each recovered in the 
manure and obtain the amount of fertiUzing constituents. 
Then multiplying the amount of each by the market price 
of that constituent and adding all together gives the fer- 
tilizing value of the feed when fed to farm animals. This, 
of course, does not take into consideration the value of the 
organic matter of the manure as a source of humus in the 
soil. Assuming nitrogen as worth 15 cents per pound, phos- 
phorus, 10 cents per pound, and potassium, 6 cents per pound, 
which is about what one generally has to pay for these con- 
stituents in commercial fertilizers, the ordinary feedingstuffs, 
after passing through the animals, have the following values 
as fertilizers : 



Table 27. — Value of Fertilizing Elements in Manure from 
Feedingstuffs 



Value per 


Value per 


100 Lb. 


Bu. 


$0.26 


'$0.15 


0.28 


0.09 


0.33 


— 


0.80 


0.48 


1.55 


— 


0.74 


— 


1.01 


— 


0.50 


— 


0.49 


— 


0.40 


— 


0.42 


— 


0.11 


— 


0.16 


— 


0.14 


~ 1 



Value per 
Ton 



Corn .... 
Oats .... 
Wheat . . . 
Soybeans . . 
Tankage . . . 
Linseed meal . 
Cottonseed meal 
Wheat bran 
Wheat middhngs 
Clover hay . . 
Alfalfa hay . . 
Timothy hay . 
Oat straw . 
Corn stover 



$9.80 

31.00 

14.80 

20.20 

10.00 

9.80 

8.00 

8.40 

2.20 

3.20 

2.80 



THE FERTILIZING VALUES OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 329 

In buying or selling feeds the fertilizing values should be 
considered. Thus if one buys a ton of cottonseed meal for 
$35.00, in reahty the feed costs him only $14.80, because the 
manure from it has a value of $20.20. The man who pays 
$2.00 per ton to have oat straw baled, sells it for $4.00 per 
ton, and hauls it to the market, loses the feeding value of 
the straw, the time and labor of hauHng, and $1.20 in cash, 
because it will cost him $3.20 to buy commercial fertilizers 
to replace the fertilizing value of the manure which the straw 
would make if fed on the farm. Thus, in selling feeds, one 
should consider how much it will cost to restore the fertility 
removed from the farm by the crop sold. 

In general, instead of selling off a large part of the grain and 
roughage from the farm and buying " complete " commercial 
fertilizers to maintain the fertility of the land, it will be better 
to follow a good system of crop rotation and feed the crops 
on the farm, thus retaining a large amount of their fertihty. 
If nitrogenous concentrates are purchased and fed on the 
farm and the manure carefully conserved, it is probable 
that the feeder will return to the land more fertility than he 
removes in his crops, and the expenditure for commercial 
fertilizers will be reduced to a minimum. 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE VALUATION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 

Having seen that most feeders of the corn-belt must buy 
nitrogenous concentrates in order to properly balance their 
rations, the question arises, what feed or feeds should he 
buy? This will depend upon the effect the feed will have 
upon the animal and its products, upon the cost of the feed, 
and upon the fertihzing value of the manure resulting from 
the feed. The nutritive values of the different feeds have 
already been discussed. So having decided upon a number 
of feeds which will be satisfactory for the purpose desired, 
the feeder must select the ones which will prove the most 
economical. This of course will depend upon the relative 
prices of the feeds. 

There are no standard prices for the digestible protein, 
carbohydrates, and fats of feedingstuffs, so one cannot cal- 
culate their relative values from their chemical composition 
as in the case of commercial fertilizers. In fact no entirely 
satisfactory method of comparing the relative economy of 
different feedingstuffs has yet been devised. In general, 
one should compare concentrates with concentrates, or 
roughages with roughages, upon their content of digestible 
protein and their content of digestible nutriment, i.e. diges- 
tible protein, plus digestible carbohydrates, plus digestible 
fat multiphed by two and one-quarter. 

For example, it is desired to know whether cottonseed 
meal at $30.00 per ton is more economical than linseed meal 

330 



THE VALUATION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 



331 



$35.00 per ton. Calculating the digestible protein and total 
nutriment in 100 pounds of each feed, and the cost of 100 
pounds of feed, we get the following : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


Cost 


100 lb. cottonseed meal 

100 lb. linseed meal .... 


Lb. 

37.6 
30.2 


Lb. 
80.6 

77.7 


$1.50 

$1.75 


Therefore, 




Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


$1.00 worth cottonseed meal contains . . 
$1.00 worth linseed meal contains . . . 


Lb. 

25.1 
17.3 


Lb. 

53.7 
44.4 



Thus the cottonseed meal at these prices furnishes more 
protein and more total nutriment per dollar invested than 
linseed meal. 

Although this method of comparison will give good re- 
sults for many comparisons of the concentrates which are 
similar to each other, yet when one compares dissimilar 
concentrates, complications often arise. For example, 
assuming that tankage cost $50.00 per ton and middhngs 
.00 per ton, we have the following comparison : 





Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


Cost 


100 lb. tankage 

100 lb. middling 


Lb. 

50.1 
16.9 


Lb. 

76.2 

79.7 


$2.50 
$1.50 



332 PRINCIPLES OF FEEDING FARM ANIMALS 

Therefore, 





Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


$1.00 worth tankage contains 

$1.00 worth middlings contains .... 


Lh. 

20.0 
11.3 


Lh. 

31.9 
53.1 



From this calculation one could not determine which feed 
is the more economical. 

In such instances, it will be necessary to calculate the 
cost of the ration when one of the feeds is used and compare 
it with the cost of the ration when the other feed is used. 
It also will be necessary to know the prices of the other 
feeds used in the ration. Returning to the example, we will 
assume]that ear corn is worth 50 cents per bushel, and that the 
feeder wishes to feed 100-pound fattening shotes. Accord- 
ing to the WoLff-Lehmann standard, a ration consisting of 
2 pounds of shelled corn and 2 pounds of middhngs will 
fulfill the requirements of a 100-pound pig. This ration will 
cost at the assumed prices for corn and middhngs, 4.8 cents 
per day. Also a ration consisting of 3 J pounds of corn and 
I pound of tankage will satisfactorily fulfill the requirements. 
The cost of this ration is 4.4 cents per day. Thus, at these 
prices, the tankage is slightly more economical than the 
middlings. In this particular instance it probably would 
pay to buy both feeds for the sake of the variety. 

In comparing a concentrate with a roughage, it is better 
to compare them on a basis of their content of digestible 
protein and net energy rather than on their content of diges- 
tible protein and total nutriment. The reason for this is 
that the net energy values do not include the energy ex- 



THE VALUATION OF FEEDINGSTUFFS 333 

pended in digestion, and thus are more accurate in compar- 
ing feeds differing greatly in the amount of energy expended 
in their digestion. For example, 100 pounds of corn and 100 
pounds of alfalfa hay contain 84.3 and 53.0 pounds of total 
nutriment respectively. In other words, alfalfa hay con- 
tains nearly two-thirds as much total nutriment as the same 
amount of corn. However, 100 pounds of corn contain 
88.8 therms of net energy, while the same amount of alfalfa 
hay contains 34.4 therms, or only about one-third as much 
as the corn. The difference, as previously stated, is due to 
the larger amount of energy expended in digestion of the hay. 

It should be remembered that the comparisons between 
concentrates and roughages may not always be as accurate 
by any means as when one compares similar feeds. How- 
ever, by using his practical knowledge and common sense 
the feeder can usually determine the most economical com- 
binations of feed to use. 

In general, whenever there is doubt as to which feed is 
most economical, the stock-feeder should calculate the cost 
of several rations, using his home-grown feeds as their 
basis and trying the effect of different supplements upon the 
cost of the rations. However, it is not exactly fair to use 
the current market prices as the values of the farm-grown 
feeds, unless it costs nothing in time and labor to market 
them. One should deduct from their value at the market 
a reasonable allowance for hauling them to market. On 
the other hand, one also should make some allowance for 
the time and labor expended in hauling purchased feed to 
the feed lots. 



APPENDIX 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstuff 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 






Fat 














Crude 


N-free 










Fiber 


Extract 




Grains and Seeds 














Cereals 


Per cent 


Percent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Dent corn .... 


10.6 


1.5 


10.3 


2.2 


70.4 


5.0 


Flint corn . . 




11.3 


1.4 


10.5 


1.7 


70.1 


5.0 


Soft corn . . 




31.1 


0.9 


7.4 


1.3 


55.7 


3.6 


Corn meal . . 




11.8 


1.4 


9.8 


2.4 


70.5 


4.1 


Corn and cob mea 




11.0 


1.4 


8.9 


6.7 


68.4 


3.6 


Wheat . • . . 




10.5 


1.8 


11.9 


1.8 


71.9 


2.1 


Rye ... . 




11.6 


1.9 


10.6 


1.7 


72.5 


1.7 


Oats .... 




11.0 


3.0 


11.8 


9.5 


59.7 


5.0 


Barley . . . 




12.0 


2.5 


11.4 


5.7 


66.6 


1.8 


Emmer (spelt) 




8.0 


3.9 


11.5 


11.1 


62.9 


2.2 


Rice .... 


.' 


12.4 


0.4 


7.4 


0.2 


79.2 


0.4 


Buckwheat 




12.6 


2.0 


10.0 


8.7 


64.5 


2.2 


Kafir grain 




12.3 


1.9 


12.3 


2.2 


68.2 


3.1 


Milo grain 




11.2 


1.6 


11.2 


2.2 


70.6 


2.8 


Feterita grain . 




10.5 


2.0 


12.1 


2.4 


70.3 


2.7 


Durra grain 




11.5 


2.0 


9.0 


3.6 


70.1 


3.8 


Shallu grain 




10.7 


1.7 


12.4 


1.7 


70.1 


3.4 


Kaoliang grain 




10.9 


1.9 


10.5 


1.7 


70.9 


4.1 


Sorghum grain 




12.8 


2.1 


9.1 


2.6 


69.8 


3.6 


Millet . . . 




12.0 


2.6 


11.1 


7.7 


62.9 


3.7 


Legumes 














Cowpea . . ^ . . 


11.9 


3.4 


23.5 


3.8 


55.7 


1.7 


Horse bean .... 


11.3 


3.8 


26.6 


7.2 


50.1 


1.0 


Field pea .... 


10.5 


2.6 


20.2 


5.6 


57.8 


1.1 


Peanut (with hull) 


6.6 


2.6 


23.2 


18.4 


14.2 


35.0 


Peanut (Without hull) 


7.5 


2.4 


27.9 


3.0 


16.6 


42.6 


Soybean 


8.7 


5.4 


36.3 


3.9 


27.7 


18.0 


Velvet bean . . . 


11.7 


2.6 


20.8 


7.5 


51.0 


6.4 



335 



336 APPENDIX 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstuff 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 






Fat 


Crude 


N-free 










Fiber 


Extract 




Grains and Seeds 














(Continued) 














Oil-hearing Seeds 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Cottonseed .... 


• 9.1 


4.0 


19.6 


18.9 


28.3 


20.1 


Flaxseed .... 


9.2 


4.3 


22.6 


7.1 


23.2 


33.7 


Sunflower seed . . 


8.6 


2.6 


16.3 


29.9 


21.4 


21.2 


Cereal By-products 














Hominy feed . . . 


10.0 


2.8 


10.8 


4.9 


64.6 


6.9 


Gluten feed . . . 


8.5 


1.9 


25.9 


7.2 


53.3 


3.2 


Gluten meal . . . 


9.5 


1.0 


36.0 


2.1 


49.1 


2.3 


Germ oilmeal . 


9.0 


2.7 


22.7 


9.3 


45.9 


10.4 


Corn bran .... 


8.7 


1.5 


9.8 


11.2 


62.6 


6.2 


Corn cobs .... 


10.7 


1.4 


2.4 


30.1 


54.9 


0.5 


Distillers' grains, dried 


5.8 


2.8 


30.9 


10.7 


39.2 


10.6 


Distillers' grains, wet 


75.7 


1.0 


5.4 


3.8 


12.5 


1.6 


Wheat flour 


11.5 


0.5 


11.4 


0.2 


75.4 


1.0 


Red dog flour . . . 


9.7 


3.5 


19.5 


2.8 


59.3 


5.2 


Flour wheat middlings 


10.0 


3.2 


18.8 


3.3 


59.9 


4.8 


Shorts 


10.0 


4.3 


17.8 


7.0 


55.9 


5.0 


Wheat bran . . . 


10.0 


6.2 


16.1 


10.0 


53.3 


4.4 


Wheat feed (shorts 














and bran) . . . 


10.0 


5.3 


16.9 


8.1 


55.2 


4.5 


Wheat screenings 


11.6 


2.9 


12.5 


6.9 


63.1 


3.0 


Rye middUngs . . 


11.0 


3.3 


14.8 


3.8 


64.4 


2.7 


Rye bran .... 


11.6 


3.6 


14.7 


3.5 


63.8 


2.8 


Rye feed (shorts and 














bran) 


9.1 


3.9 


15.1 


4.0 


64.6 


3.2 


Oat middHngs . . . 


9.0 


2.3 


15.8 


2.4 


64.3 


6.2 


Oat bran .... 


6.6 


6.1 


12.2 


18.3 


52.1 


4.7 


Oat dust .... 


6.7 


7.0 


12.6 


18.7 


49.8 


5.2 


Oat hulls .... 


7.3 


6.7 


3.3 


29.7 


52.1 


1.0 


Malt 


7.5 


2.4 


9.5 


9.0 


69.1 


2.5 


Malt sprouts . . . 


11.0 


5.9 


26.4 


12.3 


43.1 


1.3 


Brewers' grains, dried 


8.0 


3.4 


24.1 


13.0 


44.8 


6.7 


Brewers' grains, wet 


75.7 


1.0 


5.4 


3.8 


12.5 


1.6 



APPENDIX 337 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstuff 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 






Fat 














Crude 


N-free 












Fiber 


Extract 




Cereal By-products 














(Continued) 
















Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Percent 


Rice polish .... 


10.2 


5.5 


12.3 


2.5 


60.2 


9.3 


Rice bran .... 


10.2 


10.6 


12.6 


13.5 


41.3 


11.8 


Rice meal .... 


12.6 


10.2 


12.0 


8.0 


45.2 


12.0 


Buckwheat middUngs 


11.5 


4.5 


27.5 


4.2 


45.3 


7.0 


Buckwheat bran . 


11.5 


4.5 


24.8 


11.7 


40.8 


6.7 


Buckwheat feed . . 


10.0 


3.2 


15.9 


22.0 


44.8 


4.1 


Buckwheat hulls . . 


13.2 


2.2 


4.6 


43.5 


35.3 


1.1 


Oil By-products 














Cottonseed meal, 














choice .... 


7.0 


6.7 


44.6 


6.5 


25.2 


10.0 


Cottonseed meal, 














prime 


7.1 


5.8 


40.0 


10.4 


29.3 


7.4 


Cottonseed meal, good 


7.2 


5.8 


37.7 


11.8 


30.1 


7.5 


Cold pressed cotton- 














seed 


8.4 


4.0 


26.6 


25.8 


28.4 


7.9 


Cottonseed feed . . 


8.8 


4.1 


23.1 


22.6 


36.5 


4.9 


Cottonseed hulls 


11.1 


2.8 


4.2 


46.3 


33.4 


2.2 


Linseed meal, 0. P. 


8.5 


5.2 


34.3 


8.5 


36.4 


7.1 


Linseed meal, N. P. 


9.0 


5.6 


37.4 


8.9 


36.4 


2.7 


Flax feed .... 


9.5 


7.3 


16.6 


11.2 


41.2 


14.2 


Flax screenings 




8.0 


6.0 


16.8 


13.7 


40.9 


14.6 


Peanut cake 




10.7 


4.9 


47.6 


5.1 


23.7 


8.0 


Soybean cake . 




8.0 


5.4 


41.6 


4.8 


31.6 


8.6 


Coconut meal . 




10.5 


5.2 


21.4 


11.7 


42.7 


8.5 


Palmnut cake . 




9.7 


4.0 


17.7 


23.8 


36.2 


8.6 


Rapeseed cake ^ 




10.0 


7.7 


33.1 


11.1 


27.9 


10.2 


Sesame cake 




9.5 


10.7 


39.8 


6.8 


20.6 


12.6 


Sunflower cake . 




9.2 


6.3 


39.4 


11.8 


20.7 


12.6 


Hempseed cake 




12.0 


8.0 


31.8 


20.2 


18.0 


10.0 


Packinghouse By-prod- 














ucts 














Dried blood . . . 


8.5 


4.7 


84.4 


— 


— 


2.5 


Fish meal .... 


10.8 


29.2 


48.4 


— 


— 


11.6 



338 APPENDIX 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstufp 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 






Fat 














Crude 


N-free 












Fiber 


Extract 




Packinghouse By-prod- 














ucts (Continued) 
















Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Pork cracklings . . 


5.3 


2.0 


53.9 


— 


— 


36.8 


Bone meal .... 


8.0 


64.4 


23.9 


— 


3.4 


0.3 


Tankage, good grade 


7.0 


15.0 


61.0 


3.5 


3.5 


10.0 


Miscellaneous Con- 














centrates 














Beet pulp, wet . . 


89.9 


0.4 


1.0 


2.2 


6.3 


0.2 


Beet pulp, dry . . 


10.0 


3.3 


9.1 


18.6 


58.3 


0.7 


Beet pulp, molasses . 


8.0 


5.8 


9.9 


14.1 


61.7 


0.5 


Cocoa shells . . . 


5.0 


10.3 


15.4 


16.5 


49.8 


3.0 


Molasses, beet . . . 


20.8 


10.6 


9.1 


— 


59.5 


— 


Molasses, cane . . 


26.0 


6.2 


3.2 


— 


64.6 


— 


Molasses feed . . 


11.0 


6.8 


13.3 


10.8 


53.0 


5.1 


Molasses-alfalfa feed 


11.5 


9.1 


12.1 


17.1 


47.7 


1.5 


Cow's milk, whole 


87.2 


0.7 


3.6 


— 


4.9 


3.7 


Cow's milk, skim . 


90.5 


0.8 


3.6 


— 


5.1 


0.1 


Buttermilk .... 


90.4 


0.8 


3.6 


— 


5.0 


0.2 


Whey 


93.8 


0.4 


0.6 


— 


5.1 


0.1 


Hays 














Legumes 














Alfalfa 


9.1 


8.4 


14.7 


28.4 


35.8 


1.9 


Alfalfa (brown) 




20.0 


8.8 


. 12.9 


21.4 


33.8 


3.1 


Alfalfa meal . 




9.0 


8.0 


13.2 


32.7 


35.8 


1.3 


Alfalfa leaves . 




6.8 


13.6 


22.3 


12.8 


41.1 


3.4 


Beggar weed . 




9.0 


8.4 


15.2 


27.6 


37.5 


2.3 


Clover, alsike . 




15.0 


9.7 


14.0 


23.1 


36.1 


2.1 


Clover, bur 




10.4 


10.7 


18.0 


26.3 


31.4 


3.1 


Clover, crimson 




9.6 


8.6 


15.2 


27.2 


36.6 


2.8 


Clover, mammoth 


15.0 


8.2 


13.1 


24.4 


37.6 


1.7 


Clover, red .... 


15.0 


7.7 


13.3 


24.3 


37.2 


2.5 


Clover, red (brown) 


14.5 


8.6 


13.8 


23.7 


36.8 


2.6 


Clover, sweet . . . 


9.0 


7.3 


14.4 


27.3 


39.9 


2.1 



APPENDIX 339 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstuff 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 




Vkt 






a AT 










Crude 


N-free 












Fiber 


Extract 




Hays (Continued) 














Legumes 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Clover, white . . . 


9.7 


8.3 


15.7 


24.1 


39.3 


2.9 


Cowpea 


10.7 


8.5 


18.6 


20.1 


39.2 


2.9 


Lespedeza or Japan 














clover 


11.0 


8.5 


13.8 


24.0 


39.0 


3.7 


Lupine 


16.0 


4.5 


15.3 


19.0 


43.2 


2.0 


Pea, Canada field 


15.0 


6.7 


13.7 


24.7 


37.6 


2.3 


Peanut vine . . . 


7.6 


10.8 


10.7 


23.6 


42.7 


4.6 


Sanfoin 


16.5 


7.3 


13.2 


22.0 


38.5 


2.5 


Serradella .... 


9.2 


7.2 


15.2 


21.6 


44.2 


2.6 


Soybean' 


11.3 


7.2 


15.4 


22.3 


38.6 


5.2 


Velvet bean . . . 


7.2 


7.4 


16.4 


27.5 


38.4 


3.1 


Vetch 


13.2 


7.5 


17.7 


23.3 


35.9 


2.3 


Grasses 














Bermuda grass . . 


8.9 


7.9 


7.2 


24.9 


49.4 


1.8 


Bluegrass .... 


14.0 


6.4 


7.7 


30.5 


39.7 


1.7 


Brome grass . . . 


6.7 


7.7 


8.7 


31.5 


44.4 


1.0 


Buffalo grass . . . 


7.6 


11.3 


7.9 


26.1 


45.3 


1.8 


Fescue, meadow . . 


14.0 


7.1 


5.8 


32.2 


39.3 


1.6 


Johnson grass . . . 


9.7 


7.1 


7.2 


30.0 


44.1 


1.9 


Millet 


10.2 


7.9 


7.7 


27.7 


49.0 


2.3 


Mixed grasses . . . 


14.0 


5.3 


7.9 


28.7 


43.2 


2.2 


Orchard grass . . . 


14.0 


5.9 


8.3 


29.9 


39.3 


2.6 


Prairie hay . . . 


13.3 


13.8 


5.5 


26.4 


43.4 


2.5 


Red top 


8.9 


5.2 


7.9 


28.6 


47.5 


1.9 


Rye grass, ItaHan 


8.5 


6.9 


7.5 


30.5 


45.0 


1.7 


Sudan grass . . . 


3.5 


5.6 


4.7 


35.6 


49.3 


1.3 


Salt marsh .... 


15.0 


6.6 


6.1 


23.4 


46.8 


2.1 


Timothy, all analyses 


13.2 


4.4 


5.9 


29.0 


45.0 


2.5 


Timothy, full bloom 


15.0 


4.5 


6.0 


29.6 


41.9 


3.0 


Timothy, late bloom 


14.2 


4.4 


5.7 


28.1 


44.6 


3.0 


Timothy, nearly ripe 


14.1 


3.9 


5.0 


31.1 


43.7 


2.2 


Barley hay . . . . 


10.6 


5.3 


9.3 


23.6 


48.7 


2.5 


Emmer hay . . . 


7.7 


9.3 


10.0 


33.6 


37.3 


2.1 


Oat hay . . . . 


13.4 


6.0 


7.7 


27.8 


42.2 


2.9 


Rye hay . . . . 


8.0 


4.9 


6.8 


37.6 


40.7 


2.0 



340 APPENDIX 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstuff 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 




Fat 












L I\\J ± Ej±iy 


Crude 


N-free 












Fiber 


Extract 




Fodders and Stovi 


]RS 














Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Corn fodder 


. 18.3 


4.0 


6.7 


17.0 


52.1 


1.8 


Corn fodder, high 


in 












water . . . . 


. 40.2 


3.7 


4.5 


15.3 


34.7 


1.6 


Corn stover . . 


. 17.0 


6.3 


5.6 


28.0 


42.1 


1.0 


Corn stover, high 


in 












water . . . . 


. 40.0 


3.9 


4.6 


20.6 


30.1 


0.8 


Kafir fodder . . 


. 8.4 


11.8 


13.1 


22.4 


40.2 


4.1 


Kafir stover . . 


. 19.2 


8.0 


4.8 


26.8 


39.6 


1.6 


Milo fodder 


. 8.9 


11.5 


13.0 


19.5 


41.6 


5.0 


Sorghum fodder . 


. 8.9 


5.7 


5.4 


28.5 


48.8 


2.8 


Sorghum fodder, h 


igh 












in water 


. 28.0 


4.0 


4.0 


24.0 


37.0 


3.0 


Durra fodder . . 


. 10.0 


5.2 


6.4 


24.1 


51.5 


2.8 


Broom corn fodder 


. 9.4 


5.7 


3.9 


36.8 


42.4 


1.8 


Straws 














Barley straw . . 


. 14.2 


5.7 


3.5 


36.0 


39.1 


1.5 


Buckwheat straw 


. 9.9 


5.5 


5.2 


43.0 


35.1 


1.3 


Millet straw 


. 15.0 


6.3 


4.8 


35.2 


36.4 


2.3 


Oat straw . . 


. 9.2 


5.1 


4.0 


37.0 


42.4 


2.3 


Rice straw . . 


. 6.6 


14.9 


4.1 


31.6 


41.4 


1.5 


Rye straw . . 


7.1 


3.2 


3.0 


38.9 


46.6 


1.2 


Wheat straw . 


. 9.6 


4.2 


3.4 


38.1 


43.4 


1.3 


Cowpea straw 


. 8.5 


5.4 


6.8 


44.5 


33.6 


1.2 


Soybean straw . 


. 10.1 


5.8 


4.6 


40.4 


37.4 


1.7 


Clover straw . 


. 16.0 


5.7 


9.1 


44.6 


22.8 


1.8 


Pasture or Fora( 


JE, 












and Soiling Cro 


PS 












Legumes 














Alfalfa . . . 


. . 71.8 


2.7 


4.8 


7.4 


12.3 


1.0 


Beggarweed 


. . 72.8 


3.2 


4.2 


7.5 


11.8 


0.5 


Clover, alsike . 


. . 74.8 


2.0 


3.9 


7.4 


11.0 


0.9 


Clover, bur 


. . 79.3 


2.3 


5.1 


3.9 


7.7 


1.7 



APPENDIX 341 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstuff 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 






Fat 


Crude 


N-free 










Fiber 


Extract 




Pasture or Forage, 














AND Soiling Crops 














(Continued) 














Legumes 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Clover, crimson . . 


80.9 


1.7 


3.1 


5.2 


8.4 


0.7 


Clover, mammoth 


80.0 


1.9 


3.0 


5.8 


8.9 


0.4 


Clover, red . . . 


70.8 


2.1 


4.4 


8.1 


13.5 


1.1 


Clover, sweet . . . 


80.0 


1.9 


3.8 


6.3 


7.4 


0.6 


Clover, white . . . 


81.5 


2.1 


4.4 


4.3 


6.9 


0.8 


Cowpea 


85.0 


2.0 


2.8 


3.5 


6.3 


0.4 


Horsebean . . . . 


85.1 


1.4 


3.0 


4.3 


5.7 


0.5 


Lupine 


83.1 


1.0 


3.2 


5.3 


7.0 


0.4 


Pea, Canada field . 


85.0 


1.3 


3.2 


4.3 


5.8 


0.4 


Lespedeza .... 


63.4 


3.5 


6.7 


10.7 


14.7 


1.0 


Sanfoin 


75.0 


2.1 


4.4 


6.0 


11.6 


0.9 


SerradeUa .... 


79.5 


3.2 


2.7 


5.4 


8.6 


0.7 


Soybean 


75.1 


2.6 


4.0 


6.7 


10.6 


1.0 


Velvet bean . . . 


82.1 


2.0 


3.5 


5.1 


6.6 


0.7 


Vetch 


82.0 


2.5 


4.2 


5.5 


5.4 


0.4 


Grasses 














Bermuda grass . . 


66.8 


2.3 


3.0 


8.0 


18.9 


1.0 


Bluegrass, Kentucky 


65.1 


2.8 


4.1 


9.1 


17.6 


1.3 


Bluegrass, Canada 


66.8 


2.6 


3.0 


10.2 


16.2 


1.2 


Bronie grass . . . 


65.5 


3.0 


4.4 


9.5 


16.1 


1.5 


Fescue, meadow . . 


69.9 


1.8 


2.4 


10.8 


14.3 


0.8 


Johnson grass . . . 


74.0 


1.4 


2.2 


8.9 


13.2 


0.3 


Millet 


71.1 


1.7 


3.1 


9.2 


14.2 


0.7 


Orchard grass . . . 


70.0 


2.1 


2.9 


10.4 


13.7 


0.9 


Rye grass, Italian 


73.2 


2.5 


3.1 


6.8 


13.3 


1.3 


Red top .... 


65.3 


2.3 


2.8 


11.0 


17.7 


0.9 


Tall oat grass . . . 


69.5 


2.0 


2.4 


9.4 


15.8 


0.9 


Timothy . . . . 


61.6 


2.1 


3.1 


11.8 


20.2 


1.2 


Barley 


75.0 


2.1 


3.2 


7.4 


11.6 


0.7 


Oats 


75.0 


2.0 


3.5 


7.5 


11.2 


0.8 


Rye ..... . 


76.6 


1.8 


2.6 


9.6 


8.8 


0.6 


Dent corn . . . . 


80.0 


1.0 


1.6 


4.6 


12.4 


0.4 



342 APPENDIX 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




T?^ IT TT r* T "KTr* a'PTTlTTP 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 






Fat 


r EEDING8TUFF 














Crude 


N-free 












Fiber 


Extract 




Pasture or Forage, 














AND Soiling Crops 














(Continued) 














Grasses 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Flint corn .... 


79.8 


1.1 


2.0 


4.3 


12.1 


0.7 


Sweet corn, roasting 














ears 


79.1 


1.3 


1.9 


4.4 


12.8 


0.5 


Sweet corn, ears re- 














moved .... 


80.0 


1.2 


1.4 


4.9 


12.0 


0.5 


Kafir 


73.0 


2.0 


2.3 


6.9 


15.1 


0.7 


Milo 


83.2 


1.5 


1.7 


5.5 


7.5 


0.6 


Sweet Sorghum . . 


80.0 


1.0 


1.2 


6.2 


11.2 


0.4 


Durra 


85.9 


1.3 


1.7 


4.7 


6.0 


0.4 


Broom corn . . . 


77.1 


1.7 


2.0 


8.6 


10.1 


0.5 


Sugar cane .... 


84.2 


1.1 


1.2 


4.0 


9.0 


0.5 


Silage 














Corn, well matured . 


73.7 


1.6 


2.2 


6.5 


15.0 


0.9 


Corn, immature . . 


80.0 


1.1 


1.7 


5.4 


11.1 


0.7 


Corn, frosted . . . 


74.5 


1.7 


2.3 


6.0 


14.6 


0.9 


Corn, ears removed 


80.4 


1.4 


1.4 


6.3 


9.8 


0.7 


Durra 


79.7 


1.9 


1.2 


7.0 


9.5 


0.7 


Kafir 


69.2 


2.5 


1.8 


9.9 


15.5 


1.1 


Sorghum .... 


76.1 


1.1 


1.8 


6.4 


14.3 


0.3 


Alfalfa 


75.4 


2.9 


3.5 


8.2 


8.6 


1.4 


Apple pomace . . . 


79.7 


1.0 


1.6 


4.3 


12.0 


1.4 


Clover 


72.0' 


2.6 


3.7 


8.4 


12.1 


1.2 


Corn and soybean 


76.0 


2.3 


2.7 


7.3 


10.9 


0.8 


Cowpea 


78.0 


2.2 


3.1 


6.3 


9.4 


1.0 


Soybean 


74.2 


2.8 


4.1 


9.7 


6.9 


2.2 


Sugar beet tops . . 


77.0 


7.4 


2.4 


3.4 


9.1 


0.7 


Roots 














Artichoke .... 


78.0 


1.8 


2.4 


0.9 


16.8 


0.1 


Beet, common . . 


88.5 


1.0 


1.5 


0.9 


8.0 


0.1 


Beet, sugar . . . 


86.7 


0.8 


1.5 


0.9 


9.9 


0.1 



APPENDIX 343 

Table 28. Average Composition of Feedingstuffs (Continued) 











Carbohydrates 




Feedingstufp 


Water 


Ash 


Crude 
Protein 






Fat 


Crude 


N-free 










Fiber 


Extract 




Roots (Continued) 
















Percent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Carrot 


88.6 


1.0 


1.1 


1.3 


7.6 


0.4 


Mangel 


91.2 


1.0 


1.4 


0.8 


5.4 


0.2 


Potato 


78.9 


1.0 


2.1 


0.6 


17.3 


0.1 


Rutabaga .... 


88.6 


1.2 


1.2 


1.3 


7.5 


0.2 


Turnip 


90.6 


0.8 


1.3 


1.2 


5.9 


0.2 


Miscellaneous 














Roughages 














Apple 


80.7 


0.4 


0.7 


1.2 


16.6 


0.4 


Apple pomace . . 


76.7 


0.5 


1.4 


3.9 


16.2 


1.3 


Cabbage 


90.5 


1.4 


2.4 


1.5 


3.9 


0.4 


Kale 


89.7 


1.9 


2.2 


1.2 


4.5 


0.5 


Kohlrabi .... 


86.5 


1.6 


2.8 


1.6 


7.1 


0.4 


Melon, pie or stock . 


94.5 


0.4 


0.8 


1.2 


2.9 


0.2 


Pumpkin .... 


90.9 


0.5 


1.3 


1.7 


5.2 


0.4 


Rape 


84.5 


2.0 


2.3 


2.6 


8.4 


0.5 


Sugar beet leaves 


83.8 


4.8 


2.3 


1.6 


7.4 


0.4 



Table 29. — Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, 
Cattle, and Sheep ^ 



Feedingstufp 


Total Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Grains and Seeds 

Cereals 

Dent corn .... 
Flint corn .... 
Soft corn .... 
Corn meal .... 


Per cent 
89.4 

88.7 
68.9 
88.2 


Per cent 

7.6 
7.8 
5.5 
7.3 


Per cent 

67.5 
66.9 
53.1 

67.7 


Per cent 

4.6 
4.6 
3.3 
3.8 



Feedingstuffs for hogs are given in Table 30, page 352. 



344 



APPENDIX 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
and Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstttff 


Total Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Grains and Seeds 










(Continued) 










Cereals 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Corn and cob meal . 


89.0 


4.6 


63.2 


3.0 


Wheat 


89.5 


8.8 


68.0 


1.5 


Rye 


88.4 


8.9 


68.3 


1.1 


Oats 


89.0 


9.2 


51.7 


4.3 


Barley 


88.0 


8.9 


64.5 


1.4 


Emmer (spelt) 


92.0 


9.2 


63.1 


1.9 


Rice 


87.6 


4.6 


73.0 


0.4 


Buckwheat .... 


87.4 


7.5 


51.1 


2.2 


Kafir grain .... 


87.7 


10.0 


63.9 


2.4 


Milo grain .... 


88.8 


9.2 


66.2 


2.1 


Feterita grain . 


89.5 


9.8 


66.0 


2.1 


Durra grain . . . 


88.5 


7.3 


66.5 ' 


2.9 


Shallu grain . . . 


89.3 


10.0 


65.4 


2.6 


Kaoliang grain 


89.1 


8.5 


66.1 


3.1 


Sorghum grain . . 


87.2 


7.4 


65.6 


2.7 


MiUet . \ . . . 


88.0 


7.2 


58.3 


2.8 


Legumes 










Cowpea 


88.1 


19.3 


54.2 


1.3 


Horse bean .... 


88.7 


23.1 


49.8 


0.8 


Field pea .... 


89.5 


16.8 


55.8 


0.6 


Peanut (with hull) . 


93.4 


19.5 


25.3 


28.7 


Peanut (without 










hull) 


92.5 


23.4 


14.5 


34.9 


Soybean .... 


91.3 


30.5 


23.4 


14.8 


Velvet bean . . . 


88.3 


17.5 


43.3 


5.2 


Oil-Bearing Seeds 










Cottonseed . ; . . 


90.9 


13.3 


28.5 


17.5 


_Flaxseed .... 


90.8 


20.6 


17.1 


29.0 


^ Sunflower seed 


91.4 


11.1 


33.4 


18.4 ^ 



APPENDIX 



345 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
and Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 



Total Dry 

Substance 



DiGESTIBLI 

Crude 
Protein 



Digestible 
Carbohy- 



DlGESTIBLE 

Fat 



Cereal By-products 



Hominy feed 

Gluten feed 

Gluten meal 

Germ oilmeal 

Corn bran . 

Corn cobs . 

Distillers' grains, dried 

Distillers' grains, wet 

Wheat flour . 

Red dog flour 

Flour wheat middlings 

Shorts 

Wheat bran . . . 
Wheat feed (shorts and 

bran) . . 
Wheat screenings 
Rye middlings . 
Rye bran . . . 
Rye feed (shorts and 

bran) .... 
Oat middlings . . 
Oat bran .... 
Oat dust .... 
Oat hulls .... 

Malt 

Malt sprouts . . ^. 
Brewers' grains, dried 
Brewers' grains, wet 
Rice polish 
Rice bran .... 
Rice meal .... 
Buckwheat middlings 
Buckwheat bran 



Per cent 

90.0 
91.5 
90.5 
91.0 
91.3 
89.3 
94.2 
24.3 
88.5 
90.3 
90.0 
90.0 
90.0 

90.0 

88.4 
89.0 

88.4 

90.9 
91.0 
93.4 
93.3 
92.7 
92.5 
89.0 
92.0 
24.3 
89.8 
89.8 
87.4 
88.5 
88.5 



Per cent 

7.1 
22.0 
30.6 
16.6 

5.9 

0.5 
22.6 

3.9 
10.0 
17.2 
16.5 
13.7 
12.6 

13.0 

9.0 

11.8 

11.8 

12.1 

12.6 

9.8 

10.1 

1.7 

7.6 

20.3 

19.5 

4.4 

8.2 

8.2 

7.4 

23.4 

11.7 



Per cent 

6l'.8 
52.4 
45.4 
43.0 
58.1 
46.6 
42.0 
13.7 
66.5 
53.2 
53.9 
45.7 
41.5 

44.9 
51.1 
60.0 
59.2 

60.4 
55.9 
53.3 
51.5 
45.4 
64.6 
45.2 
31.9 
9.0 
55.5 
36.0 
48.9 
37.6 
27.4 



Per cent 

6.3 
2.7 
2.1 

10.0 
5.0 
0.2 

10.1 
1.5 
0.9 
4.5 
4.1 
4.4 
3.0 

3.9 
2.6 
2.4 
2.5 

2.9 
5.8 
4.4 
4.8 
0.8 
1.9 
1.1 
6.0 
1.4 
7.6 
9.1 
10.9 
6.2 
3.8 



346 



APPENDIX 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
AND Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 


Total Dry 

Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Oil By-products 












Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Cottonseed meal, choice 


93.0 


37.5 


21.3 


9.5 


Cottonseed meal, prime 


92.9 


33.6 


25.8 


7.0 


Cottonseed meal, good 


92.8 


31.7 


27.0 


7.1 


Cold pressed cottonseed 


91.6 


21.5 


32.8 


7.6 


Cottonseed feed . 


91.2 


13.4 


32.5 


4.4 


Cottonseed hulls . . 


88.9 


0.3 


33.2 


1.7 


Linseed meal, 0. P. 


91.5 


30.5 


33.2 


6.3 


Linseed meal, N. P. 


91.0 


32.2 


38.2 


2.6 


Flax feed 


90.5 


14.8 


38.5 


12.6 


Flax screenings 




92.0 


15.0 


39.7 


13.0 


Peanut cake . 




89.3 


42.8 


20.4 


7.2 


Soybean cake 




92.0 


38.3 


36.4 


5.8 


Coconut meal 




89.5 


16.7 


41.4 


8.2 


Palmnut cake 




90.3 


15.0 


45.1 


8.3 


Hempseed cake 




88.0 


23.9 


11.9 


9.0 


Rapeseed cake 




90.0 


27.4 


23.2 


8.1 


Sesame cake . 




90.5 


35.8 


13.6 


11.3 


Sunflower cake 




90.8 


33.5 


18.2 


11.1 


Packinghouse By- 










products 










Dried blood .... 


91.5 


70.9 





2.4 


Fish meal 


89.2 


37.8 





11.6 


Tankage, good grade . 


93.0 


56.7 




9.8 


Miscellaneous Con- 










centrates 










Beet pulp, wet . . . 


10.1 


0.5 


7.1 


0.1 


Beet pulp, dry . . . 


90.0 


4.7 


63.8 


0.5 


Beet pulp, molasses 


92.0 


6.3 


67.9 


0.4 


Cocoa shells .... 


95.0 


1.7 


44.8 


3.0 


Molasses, beet . . . 


79.2 


2.9 


53.6 


— 



APPENDIX 



347 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
AND Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 


Total Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Miscellaneous Con- 










centrates (Continued) 












Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Molasses, cane . 


74.0 


1.0 


58.1 


— 


Molasses, feed . . . 


89.0 


4.1 


47.3 


4.6 


Molasses-alfalfa feed . 


88.5 


5.6 


46.2 


1.4 


Cow's milk, whole . . 


12.8 


3.6 


4.9 


3.7 


Cow's milk, skim 


9.5 


3.6 


5.1 


0.1 


Buttermilk .... 


9.6 


3.6 


5.0 


0.2 


Whey 


6.2 


0.6 


5.1 


0.1 


Hays 










Legumes 










Alfalfa 


90.9 


10.4 


38.0 


0.7 


Alfalfa (brown) . . 


80.0 


9.0 


28.2 


1.6 


Alfalfa meal . . . 


91.0 


9.8 


40.8 


0.5 


AlfaKa leaves . 


93.2 


15.8 


35.1 


1.3 


Beggar weed . . . 


91.0 


11.4 


36.4 


0.7 


Clover, alsike . 


85.0 


9.2 


35.4 


0.8 


Clover, bur . . . 


89.6 


14.6 


40.7 


1.5 


Clover, crimson . . 


90.4 


10.5 


36.6 


1.2 


Clover, mammoth . 


85.0 


7.7 


38.0 


1.0 


Clover, red .... 


85.0 


7.7 


37.3 


1.4 


Clover, red (brown) . 


85.5 


8.9 


36.4 


1.3 


Clover, sweet . . . 


91.0 


10.8 


38.0 


0.7 


Clover, white . . . 


90.3 


11.5 


42.2 


1.5 


Cowpea 


89.3 


12.6 


36.1 


1.1 


Lespedeza or Japan 










clover 


89.0 


8.1 


38.7 


2.1 


Lupine 


84.0 


11.5 


43.0 


1.1 


Pea, Canada field 


85.0 


9.3 


37.3 


0.9 


Peanut vine . . . 


92.4 


7.7 


43.0 


3.7 


Sanfoin 


83.5 


9.2 


36.4 


1.6 


Serradella .... 


90.8 


11.4 


38.6 


1.7 


Soybean .... 


88.7 


10.9 


40.2 


1.5 


Velvet bean . . . 


92.8 


12.0 


40.3 


1.4 


Vetch 


86.8 


12.9 


39.0 


1.5 



348 



APPENDIX 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
AND Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 



analy- 



Hays (Continued) 

Grasses 

Bermuda grass 
Bluegrass . 
Brome grass 
Buffalo grass 
Fescue . . 
Johnson grass 
Millet . . 
Mixed grasses 
Orchard grass 
Prairie hay . 
Red top . . 
Salt marsh . 
Timothy, all 

ses 

Timothy, full bloom 
Timothy, late bloom 
Timothy, nearly ripe 
Barley hay .... 
Emmer hay . . . 

Oat hay 

Rye hay .... 

Fodders and Stovers 

Corn fodder . . . 
Corn fodder, high in 

water 

Corn stover . , . 
Corn stover, high in 

water 

Kafir fodder . . . 
Kafir stover . . 
Milo fodder . . . 
Sorghum fodder . 



Total Dry 

Substance 



Per cent 

91.1 

86.0 
93.3 
92.4 
86.0 
90.3 
89.8 
86.0 
86.0 
86.7 
91.1 
85.0 

86.8 
85.0 
85.8 
85.9 
89.4 
92.3 
86.6 
92.0 



81.7 

59.8 
83.0 

60.0 
91.6 
80.8 
91.1 
91.1 



Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 



Per cent 

3.7 
4.4 
4.4 
4.3 
3.0 
3.2 
4.6 
4.5 
5.0 
3.3 
4.9 
2.7 

2.8 
3.4 
2.5 
2.1 
6.0 
6.5 
4.2 
3.7 



3.0 

2.0 
2.1 

1.7 
6.0 
1.6 
2.0 
2.1 



Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 



Per cent 

38.1 
44.3 
47.0 
43.1 

44.8 
45.2 
51.6 
44.6 
40.2 
38.3 
47.3 
38.6 

42.4 
43.3 
39.2 
40.1 
45.3 
44.3 
38.1 
42.4 



48.7 

34.9 
43.3 

31.4 
40.3 
41.8 
35.3 
48.1 



APPENDIX 



349 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
AND Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 


Total Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Fodders and Stovers 










(Continued) 












Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Sorghum fodder, high 










in water .... 


72.0 


1.5 


37.9 


1.9 


Durra fodder . 


90.0 


2.9 


49.0 


1.7 


Broom corn fodder . 


90.6 


1.8 


50.5 


1.1 


Straws 










Barley straw . . . 


85.8 


0.7 


41.3 


0.6 


Oat straw .... 


90.8 


1.2 


38.7 


0.8 


Rice straw .... 


93.4 


0.9 


37.6 


0.4 


Rye straw .... 


92.9 


0.6 


40.5 


0.4 


Wheat straw . . . 


90.4 


0.4 


36.3 


0.4 


Cowpea straw . . . 


91.5 


3.4 


39.1 


0.7 


Soybean straw . . 


89.9 


2.3 


40.1 


1.0 


Clover straw . , . 


84.0 


4.5 


31.9 


1.1 


Pasture, or Forage 










and Soiling Crops 










Legumes 










Alfalfa 


28.2 


3.6 


12.1 


0.4 


Clover, alsike . 


25.2 


2.6 


12.5 


0.6 


Clover, bur .... 


20.7 


3.4 


8.1 


1.1 


Clover, crimson . 


19.1 


2.4 


9.1 


0.5 


Clover, mammoth . 


20.0 


2.0 


9.9 


0.3 


Clover, red .... 


29.2 


2.9 


14.8 


0.7 


Clover, sweet . 


20.0 


2.5 


9.1 


0.4 


Clover, white .^ . . 


18.5 


2.9 


9.7 


0.5 


Cowpeas .... 


15.0 


2.1 


7.2 


0.2 


Horsebean .... 


14.9 


2.2 


6.7 


0.3 


Lupines 


16.9 


2.4 


8.3 


0.2 


Peas, Canada field . 


15.0 


2.6 


6.5 


0.2 


Lespedeza . . . . 


36.6 


4.5 


17.2 


0.6 


Sanfoin 


25.0 


3.2 


11.5 


0.6 



350 



APPENDIX 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
AND Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 


Total Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 


Pasture, or Forage 










AND Soiling Crops 










(Continued) 










Legumes 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Serradella .... 


20.5 


1.8 


9.6 


0.5 


Soybeans .... 


24.9 


3.1 


11.0 


0.5 


Velvet beans . . . 


17.9 


2.7 


7.2 


0.4 


Vetch 


18.0 


3.5 


7.7 


0.3 


Grasses 










Bermuda grass . . 


33.2 


1.9 


14.9 


0.5 


Bluegrass, Kentucky 


34.9 


2.9 


19.7 


0.8 


Bluegrass, Canada . 


33.2 


1.3 


17.2 


0.4 


Brome grass . . . 


34.5 


3.0 


15.8 


0.2 


Johnson grass . . . 


26.0 


1.4 


15.0 


0.2 


MiUet 


28.9 


2.0 


15.9 


0.4 


Orchard grass . . . 


30.0 


1.7 


13.7 


0.5 


Red top 


34.7 


2.0 


21.3 


0.6 


Timothy .... 


38.4 


1.6 


19.0 


0.6 


Barley 


25.0 


2.3 


12.5 


0.4 


Oats 


25.0 


2.6 


11.0 


0.6 


Rye 


23.4 


2.1 


14.1 


0.4 


Dent corn .... 


20.0 


0.9 


12.2 


0.3 


Flint corn .... 


20.2 


1.0 


11.9 


0.5 


Sweet corn, roasting 










ears 


20.9 


1.2 


12.5 


0.4 


Sweet corn, ears re- 










moved .... 


20.0 


0.7 


11.6 


0.4 


Kafir 


27.0 


1.0 


14.8 


0.4 


Milo 


16.8 


0.7 


8.5 


0.4 


Sweet Sorghum . . 


20.0 


0.5 


11.6 


0.3 


Durra 


14.1 


0.7 


7.0 


0.3 


Broom corn . . . 


22.9 


0.9 


12.1 


0.3 


Sugar cane .... 


15.8 


0.5 


8.7 


0.3 



APPENDIX 



351 



Table 29. Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Horses, Cattle, 
AND Sheep. (Continued) 



Feedingstupf 



Silage 



Corn, well matured 
Corn, immature . 
Corn, frosted . . 
Corn, ears removed 
Durra .... 
Kafir .... 
Sorghum . . . 
Alfalfa .... 
Apple pomace 
Clover .... 
Corn and soybean 
Cowpea . . . 
Soybean . . . 

Roots 



Beet, common 
Beet, sugar 
Carrot . 
Mangel . 
Potato . 
Rutabaga 
Turnip . 



Miscellaneous 
Roughages 

Apple pomace . . 
Cabbage . . . . 

Kale 

Pumpkin . . . . 
Rape 



ToTAii Dby 

Substance 



Per cent 

26.3 
20.0 
25.5 
19.6 
20.3 
30.8 
23.9 
24.6 
20.3 
28.0 
24.0 
22.0 
25.8 



11.5 
13.6 
11.4 

8.8 
21.1 
11.4 

9.4 



23.3 
9.5 

10.3 
9.1 

15.5 



Digestible 

Crude 

Protein 



Per cent 
1.1 

0.9 
1.2 
0.7 
0.6 
0.9 
0.9 
1.2 
0.5 
1.3 
1.7 
1.8 
2.7 



1.4 
1.1 
1.0 
0.7 
1.3 
1.0 
0.9 



0.3 
2.0 
1.8 
1.0 
2.0 



Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 



Per cent 

14.9 
11.2 
14.3 
11.1 

9.9 
15.2 
12.9 

7.8 
13.0 

9.4 
13.0 
10.2 

9.6 



8.9 
9.9 
8.7 
5.3 
15.6 
8.1 
6.0 



14.4 
5.4 
4.1 
5.6 
9.6 



Digestible 
Fat 



Per cent 

0.7 
0.5 
0.7 
0.6 
0.3 
0.5 
0.2 
0.6 
0.6 
0.5 
0.7 
0.6 
1.3 



0.5 
0.1 
0.4 
0.1 

0.2 
0.1 



0.6 
0.2 
0.3 
0.4 
0.2 



352 



APPENDIX 



Table 30. — Percentage of Total Dry Substance and Di- 
gestible Nutrients in Feedingstuffs for Hogs ^ 



Feedingstuff 


Total Dry 
Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Carbohy- 
drates 


Digestible 
Fat 




Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 


Shelled corn .... 


89.4 


7.7 


65.8 


3.2 


Ground corn . . 




88.2 


7.4 


66.7 


2.6 


Corn and cob meal 




89.0 


6.8 


59.4 


3.0 


Wheat .... 




89.5 


9.5 


60.8 


1.5 


Barley .... 




88.0 


8.8 


60.0 


0.8 


Rye .... 




88.4 


8.9 


68.3 


0.7 


Sorghum seed 




87.2 


5.5 


58.1 


2.6 


Millet seed . . 




88.0 


7.5 


60.4 


2.2 


Rice .... 




87.6 


6.4 


79.2 


2.8 


Wheat bran . 




90.0 


12.1 


39.1 


3.2 


Wheat shorts 




90.0 


14.8 


50.2 


4.2 


Wheat middlings 




90.0 


15.0 


49.4 


4.1 


Red dog flour 




90.3 


17.2 


48.8 


1.9 


Pea meal . . . 




89.5 


18.2 


59.4 


0.5 


Linseed meal 




91.5 


29.2 


31.2 


5.0 


Soybean meal 




91.3 


30.5 


28.9 


15.1 


Skim milk . . 




9.5 


3.6 


5.1 


0.1 


Buttermilk . . 




9.6 


3.6 


5.0 


0.2 


Dried blood . . 




91.5 


60.8 


— 


2.0 


Tankage 




93.0 


43.3 


— 


10.0 


Pork cracklings . 




94.7 


50.7 


— 


36.8 


Potato .... 




21.1 


1.8 


17.3 


— 



1 Owing to the fact that hogs do not digest their feeds with the same degree 
of thoroughness as the other farm animals, this table has been calculated and 
is recommended for use in calculating rations for hogs. The table is not exten- 
sive due to the few digestion experiments which have been made with hogs. 



APPENDIX 



353 



Table 31. Dry Substance, Digestible Protein, and Net 
Energy per 100 Pounds of Feed (Armsby). 



Feedingstufp 



Green fodder and silage 

Alfalfa 

Clover, red . . . 
Corn fodder, green . 
Corn silage 
Hungarian grass . 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy . . . . 



Hay and dry coarse fodders 
Alfalfa hay .... 
Clover hay, red . . . 
Corn forage, field cured 
Corn stover, field cured 
Cowpea hay .... 
Hungarian hay . . . 

Oat hay 

Soybean hay .... 
Timothy hay .... 

Straws 

Oat straw ..... 

Rye straw 

Wheat straw .... 



Roots and tubers 
Carrots . 
Mangels 
Potatoes 
Rutabagas . 
Turnips . . 



Grains 

Barley .... 

Corn 

Corn-and-cob meal 



Total Dry 

Substance 



Lbs. 
28.2 

29.2 
20.7 
25.6 
28.9 
14.3 
23.4 
38.4 



91.6 

84.7 
57.8 
59.5 
89.3 
92.3 
84.0 
88.7 
86.8 

90.8 
92.9 
90.4 

11.4 

9.1 

21.1 

11.4 

9.4 



89.1 
89.1 
84.9 



Digest- 
ible 
Protein ^ 



Lbs. 

2.50 
2.21 
0.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 



6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 
8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
0.63 
0.37 

0.37 
0.14 
0.45 
0.88 
0.22 



8.37 
6.79 
4.53 



True protein, not crude protein. 



2a 



354 



APPENDIX 



Table 31. Dry Substance, Digestible Protein, and Net 
Energy per 100 Pounds of Feed (Armsby). (Continued) 



Feedingstuff 



Grains (Continued) 

Oats 

Pea meal . 

Rye 

Wheat . . . . 



By-products 

Brewers' grains, dried , 
Brewers' grains, wet 
Buckwheat middlings , 
Cottonseed meal . 
Distillers' grains, dried 

Principally corn . 

Principally rye , , 
Gluten feed, dry . . , 
Gluten meal, Buffalo 
Gluten meal, Chicago 
Linseed meal, O. P. . 
Linseed meal, N. P. 
Malt sprouts ... 
Rye bran .... 
Sugar beet pulp, fresh 
Sugar beet pulp, dried 
Wheat bran ... 
Wheat middlings 



Total Dry 
Substance 



Lbs. 

89.0 
89.5 
88.4 
89.5 



92.0 
24.3 

88.2 
91.8 



93.0 
93.2 
91.9 
91.8 
90.5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
10.1 
93.6 
88.1 
84.0 



Digest- 
ible 
Protein * 



Lbs. 
8.36 

16.77 
8.12 
8.90 



19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35.15 

21.93 
10.38 
19.95 
21.56 
33.09 
27.54 
29.26 
12.36 
11.35 
0.63 
6.80 
10.21 
12.79 



Net 
Energy 



Therms 

66.27 
71.75 

81.72 
82.63 



60.01 
14.82 
75.92 
84.20 

79.23 
60.93 
79.32 

88.80 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 
46.33 
56.65 
7.77 
60.10 
48.23 
77.65 



True protein, not crude protein. 



APPENDIX 



355 



Table 32. — Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards 
(Showing amounts of nutrients per day per 1000 pounds live weight) 



Animal 


Total 
Dry 

Sub- 


Digest- 
ible 
Crude 


Digest- 
ible 
Carbohy- 


Digest- 
ible 
Fat 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 




stance 


Protein 


drates 


Oxen 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


At rest in stall . . . 


18 


0.7 


8.0 


0.1 


11.8 


Fattening cattle 












First period .... 


30 


2.5 


15.0 


0.5 


6.5 


Second period . . . 


30 


3.0 


14.5 


0.7 


5.4 


Third period .... 


26 


2.7 


15.0 


0.7 


6.2 


Milch cows 












When yielding daily . 












11.0 pounds of milk 


25 


1.6 


10.0 


0.3 


6.7 


16.6 pounds of milk . 


27 


2.0 


11.0 


0.4 


6.0 


22.0 pounds of milk 


29 


2.5 


13.0 


0.5 


5.7 


27.5 pounds of milk . 


32 


3.3 


13.0 


0.8 


4.5 


Sheep 












Coarse wool .... 


20 


1.2 


10.5 


0.2 


9.1 


Fine wool 


23 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


8.5 


Breeding ewes 












With lambs .... 


25 


2.9 


15.0 


0.5 


5.6. 


Fattening sheep 












First period .... 


30 


3.0 


15.0 


0.5 


5.4 


Second period . . . 


28 


3.5 


14.5 


0.6 


4.5 


Horses 












Light work .... 


20 


1.5 


9.5 


0.4 


7.0 


Medium work . . . 


24 


2.0 


11.0 


0.6 


6.2 


Heavy work .... 


26 


2.5 


13.3 


0.8 


6.0 


Brood sows 


22 


2.5 


15.5 


0.4 


6.6 


Fattening swine 












First period .... 


36 


4.5 


25.0 


0.7 


5.0 


Second period 


32 


4.0 


24.0 


0.5 


6.3 


Third period .-^ . . . 


25 


2.7 


18.0 


0.4 


7.0 


Growing cattle (dairy breeds) 












2- 3 mos. 150 lb. 


23 


4.0 


13.0 


2.0 


4.5 


3- 6 mos. 300 lb. 


24 


3.0 


12.8 


1.0 


5.1 


6- 12 mos. 500 lb. 


27 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


6.8 


12-18 mos. 700 lb. 


26 


1.8 


12.5 


0.4 


7.5 


18-24 mos. 900 lb. 


26 


1.5 


12.0 


0.3 


8.5 



356 



APPENDIX 



Table 32. Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards 

(Showing amounts of nutrients per day per 1000 pounds live 
weight). (Continued) 



Animal 


Total 
Dry 

Sub- 


Digest- 
ible 
Crude 


Digest- 
ible 
Carbohy- 


Digest- 
ible 
Fat 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 




stance 


Protein 


drates 


Growing cattle (beef breeds) 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


1: 


2- 3 mos. 160 lb. 


23 


4.2 


13.0 


2.0 


4.2 


3- 6 mos. 330 lb. . . 


24 


3.5 


12.8 


1.5 


4.7 


6-12 mos. 550 lb. . . 


25 


2.5 


13.2 


0.7 


6.0 


12-18 mos. 750 lb. 


24 


2.0 


12.5 


0.5 


6.8 


18-24 mos. 950 lb. 


24 


1.8 


12.0 


0.4 


7.2 


Growing shee-p (wool breeds) 












4r- 6 mos. 60 lb. . . 


25 


3.4 


15.4 


0.7 


5.0 


6- 8 mos. 75 lb. . . 


25 


2.8 


13.8 


0.6 


5.4 


8- 11 mos. 80 lb. . . 


23 


2.1 


11.5 


0.5 


6.0 


11-15 mos. 90 lb. . . 


22 


1.8 


11.2 


0.4 


7.0 


15-20 mos. 100 lb. 


22 


1.5 


10.8 


0.3 


7.7 


Growing sheep (mutton 












breeds) 












4r- 6 mos. 60 lb. . . 


26 


4.4 


15.5 


0.9 


4.0 


6- 8 mos. 80 lb. . . 


26 


3.5 


15.0 


0.7 


4.8 


8-11 mos. 100 lb. 


24 


3.0 


14.3 


0.5 


5.2 


11-15 mos. 120 lb. 


23 


2.2 


12.6 


0.5 


6.3 


15-20 mos. 150 lb. 


22 


2.0 


12.0 


0.4 


6.5 


Growing swine (breeding 












stock) 












2- 3 mos. 50 lb. . . 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


4.0 


3- 5 mos. 100 lb. . . 


35 


4.8 


22.5 


0.7 


5.0 


5- 6 mos. 120 lb. . . 


32 


3.7 


21.3 


0.4 


6.0 


6- 8 mos. 200 lb. . . 


28 


2.8 


18.7 


0.3 


7.0 


8-12 mos. 250 lb. . . 


25 


2.1 


15.3 


0.2 


7.5 


Growing, fattening swine 












2- 3 mos. 50 lb. . . 


44 


7.6 


28.0 


1.0 


4.0 


3- 5 mos. 100 lb. . . 


35 


5.0 


23.1 


0.8 


5.0 


5- 6 mos. 150 lb. . . 


33 


4.3 


22.3 


0.6 


5.5 


6- 8 mos. 200 lb. . . 


30 


3.6 


20.5 


0.4 


6.0 


9-12 mos. 300 lb. . . 


26 


3.0 


18.3 


0.3 


6.4 



APPENDIX 



357 



Table 33. Henry-Morrison Feeding Standards 









Digestible 


Total Di- 




Crude Protein 


gestible 
Nutrients 


Dairy Cows 


Lb. 


Lb. 


For maintenance of 1000-lb. cow . 


0.700 


7.925 


To allowance for maintenance add 








For each lb. of 2.5 per cent milk . 




0.045-0.053 


0.256 


For each lb. of 3.0 per cent milk 






0.047-0.057 


0.286 


For each lb. of 3.5 per cent milk 






0.049-0.061 


0.316 


For each lb. of 4.0 per cent milk 






0.054-0.065 


0.346 


For each lb. of 4.5 per cent milk 






0.057-0.069 


0.376 


For each lb. of 5.0 per cent milk 






0.060-0.073 


0.402 


For each lb. of 5.5 per cent milk 






0.064-0.077 


0.428 


For each lb. of 6.0 per cent milk 






0.067-0.081 


0.454 


For each lb. of 6.5 per cent milk 






0.072-0.085 


0.482 


For each lb. of 7.0 per cent milk 






0.074-0.089 


0.505 





Per 1000 Lb. Live Weight 




Live Weight 


Dry 

Substance 


Digestible 


Total 


Nutritive 
Ratio 




Crude 
Protein 


Digestible 
Nutrients 




Growing, fattening 










steers 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


1: 


100 lb. 


14.1 


3.2 


16.6 


4.2 


150 lb. 


20.7 


3.3 


17.2 


4.2 


200 lb. 


24.0 


3.4 


17.4 


4.1 


250 lb. 


25.6 


3.0 


17.7 


4.9 


300 lb. 


26.7 


2.7 


17.9 


5.6 


350 lb. 


25.3 


2.4 


16.8 


6.0 


400 lb. 


24.3 


2.2 


15.8 


6.2 


450 lb. 


24.1 


2.1 


16.1 


6.7 


500 lb. 


23.9 


2.1 


15.8 


6.5 


550 lb. 


23.6 


2.0 


15.6 


6.6 


600 lb. ^ 


23.2 


2.0 


15.4 


6.7 


700 lb. 


22.6 


2.0 


14.8 


6.4 


800 lb. 


21.4 


2.0 


14.3 


6.3 


900 lb. 


20.2 


2.0 


13.6 


5.8 


1000 lb. 


19.7 


1.8 


13.5 


6.5 


1100 lb. 


18.1 


1.6 


12.6 


6.9 


1200 lb. 


17.3 


1.5 


12.3 


7.2 



358 



APPENDIX 



Table 33. Henry-Morrison Feeding Standards. (Continued) 





Per Day peb 1000 Lbs. Live Weight 


Animal 


Dry 

Substance 


Digestible 
Crude 
Protein 


Total 
Digestible 
Nutrients 


Nutri- 
tive 
Ratio 


Fattening 2-Yr.-0ld 

Steers on Full Feed 

First 50-60 days . 

Second 50-60 days 

Third 50-60 days 


Lb. 

22.0-25.0 
21.0-24.0 
18.0-22.0 


Lb. 

2.0-2.3 
1.9-2.3 
1.8-2.1 


Lb. 

18.0-20.0 
17.0-19.5 
16.0-18.5 


1: 

7.0-7.8 
7,0-7.8 
7.0-7.8 


Ox at Rest in Stall . . 


13.0-21.0 


0.6-0.8 


8.4-10.4 


10.0-16.0 


Wintering Beef Cows 
in Calf 


14.0-25.0 


0.7-0.9 


9.0-12.0 


10.O-15.0 


Horses 

Idle 

At light work . . 
At medium work . 
At heavy work 


13.0-18.0 
15.0-22.0 
16.0-24.0 
18.0-26.0 


0.8-1.0 
1.1-1.4 
1.4-1.7 
2.0-2.2 


7.0- 9.0 
10.0-13.1 
12.8-15.6 
15.9-19.5 


8.0-9.0 
8.0-8.5 
7.8-8.3 
7.0-8.0 


Brood Mares Suckling 
Foals, but not at Work 


15.0-22.0 


1.2-1.5 


9.0-12.0 


6.5-7.5 


Growing colts, Over Six 
Months 


18.0-22.0 


1.6-1.8 


11.0-13.0 


6.0-7.0 


Fattening Lambs 

Weight 50-70 lb. 
Weight 70-90 lb. 
Weight 90-110 lb. 


27.0-30.0 
28.0-31.0 
27.0-31.0 


3.1-3.3 

2.5-2.8 
2.3-2.5 


19.0-22.0 
20.0-23.0 
19.0-23.0 


5.0-6.0 
6.7-7.2 
7.0-8.0 


Sheep, Maintaining 
Mature 
Coarse wool . . 
Fine wool . . . 


18.0-23.0 
20.0-26.0 


1.1-1.3 
1.4-1.6 


11.0-13.0 
12.0-14.0 


8.0-9.1 
7.5-8.5 


Breeding Ewes with 
Lambs 


23.0-27.0 


2.6-2.9 


18.0-20.0 


5.6-6.5 


Fattening Pigs 

Weight 30- 501b. 
Weight 50-100 lb. 
Weight 100-150 lb. 
Weight 150-200 lb. 
Weight 200-250 lb. 
Weight 250-300 lb. 


46.2-51.0 
37.0-40.8 
32.4-35.8 
29.0-32.0 
25.5-28.1 
22.4-24.8 


7.8-8.5 
5.5-6.0 
4.4-4.9 
3.5-3.9 
3.0-3.4 
2.6-2.9 


41.0-45.4 
32.9-36.4 
28.8-31.9 
25.8-28.5 
22.7-25.0 
20.0-22.0 


4.0-4.5 
5.0-5.6 
5.5-6.2 
6.2-7.0 
6.5-7.3 
6.7-7.5 


Brood Sows, with Pigs 


20.0-24.0 


2.4-2.7 


18.0-21.0 


6.0-7.0 



APPENDIX 



359 



Table 34. Akmsby Feeding Standards 
For Maintenance 



Cattle 


Horses 


Live weight 


Digestible 
protein 


Net energy 


Digestible 
protein 


Net energy 


Lh. 

150 

250 

500 

750 

1000 

1250 

1500 


Lh. 

0.15 
0.20 
0.30 
0.40 
0.50 
0.60 
0.65 


Therms 

1.7 
2.4 
3.8 
5.0 
6.0 
7.0 
7.9 


Lb. 

0.3 
0.4 
0.6 
0.8 
1.0 
1.2 
1.3 


Therms 

2.0 
2.8 
4.4 
5.8 
7.0 
8.1 
9.2 



Sheep 



Live weight 


Digestible protein 


Net energy 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Therms 


20 


0.02 


0.30 


40 


0.05 


0.54 


60 • 


0.07 


0.71 


80 


0.09 


0.87 


100 


0.10 


1.00 


120 


0.11 


1.13 


140 


0.13 


1.25 



For Growth 

Cattle 



Age 


Live weight 


Digestible protein 


Net energy 


Months 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Therms 


3 


275 


1.10 


5.0 


6 


425 


1.30 


6.0 


12 


650 


1.65 


7.0 


18 


850 


1.70 


7.5 


24 


1000 


1.75 


8.0 


30 


1100 


1.65 


8.0 



360 



APPENDIX 



Table 34. Armsby Feeding Standards. 
For Growth 

Sheep 



(Continued) 



[Age 


Live Weight 


Digestible Protein 


Net Energy 


Months 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Therms 


6 


70 


0.30 


1.3 


9 


90 


0.25 


1.4 


12 


110 


0.23 


1.4 


15 


130 


0.23 


1.5 


18 


145 


0.22 


1.6 



For Fattening' 





C 


ATTLE 


Live weight 


Digestible 
protein 


Net energy 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Therms 


250 


1.1 


2.4 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


425 


1.3 


3.4 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


500 


1.5 


3.8 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


650 


1.7 


4.5 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


750 


1.7 


5.0 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


850 


1.7 


5.4 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


1000 


1.8 


6.0 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


1100 


1.7 


6.4 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


1250 


1.6 


7.0 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


1500 


1.5 


7.9 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 



Sheep 



40 


— 


0.54 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


60 


— 


0.70 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


70 


0.30 


0.79 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


80 


0.28 


0.87 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


90 


0.25 


0.94 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


100 


0.24 


1.00 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


110 


0.23 


1.06 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 


120 


0.23 


1.13+ (3.5 X daily gain.) 


130 


0.23 


1.19+ (3.5 X daily gain.) 


140 


0.22 


1.25+ (3.5 X daily gain.) 


145 


0.22 


1.28 + (3.5 X daily gain.) 



1 Modified from Armsby's original table for the sake of simplicity. 



APPENDIX 



361 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digesti'ble Nutrients in Dif- 
ferent Amounts of Feeds ^ 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OF 

Feed 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment * 


Succulent Roughage 




Lh. 


Lh. 


Lb. 


Fodder corn .... 


1 


.207 


.010 


.138 




5 


1.035 


.050 


.690 




15 


3.105 


.150 


2.070 




20 


4.140 


.200 


2.760 




25 


5.175 


.250 


3.450 




30 


6.210 


.300 


4.140 




35 


7.245 


.350 


4.830 




40 


8.280 


.400 


5.520 


Red clover 


1 


.292 


.029 


.181 




5 


1.460 


.145 


.905 




15 


4.380 


.435 


2.715 




20 


5.840 


.580 


3.620 




25 


7.300 


.725 


4.525 




30 


8.760 


.870 


5.430 




35 


10.220 


1.015 


6.335 




40 


11.680 


1.160 


7.240 


Alfalfa ...... 


1 


.282 


.036 


.166 


' 


5 


1.410 


.180 


.830 




10 


2.820 


.360 


1.660 




15 


4.230 


.540 


2.490 




20 


5.640 


.720 


3.320 




25 


7.050 


.900 


4.150 


■ 


30 


8.460 


1.080 


4.980 




35 


9.870 


1.260 


5.810 




40 


11.280 


1.440 


6.640 


Green sorghum . . . 


1 


.206 


.006 


.129 


^ 


5 


1.030 


.030 


.645 




10 


2.060 


.060 


1.290 




15 


3.090 


.090 


1.935 




20 


4.120 


.120 


2.580 



1 Taken from Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 321. 

2 Digestible protein + digestible carbohydrates + 2i X digestible fat. 



362 



APPENDIX 



Table 35. The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 





Lbs. 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total 


Kind of Feed 


OF 

Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Succulent Roughage. (Con- 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


tinued) 










Green sorghum 


25 


5.150 


.150 


3.225 




30 


6.180 


.180 


3.870 




35 


7.210 


.210 


4.515 




40 


8.240 


.240 


5.160 


Mangel beets .... 


1 


.091 


.010 


.070 




5 


.455 


.050 


.350 




10 


.910 


.100 


.700 




15 


1.365 


.150 


1.050 




20 


1.820 


.200 


1.400 




25 


2.275 


.250 


1.750 




30 


2.730 


.300 


2.100 


Sugar beets .... 


1 


.135 


.013 


.113 




5 


.675 


.065 


.565 




10 


1.350 


.130 


1.130 




15 


2.025 


.195 


1.695 




20 


2.700 


.260 


2.260 




25 


3.375 


.325 


2.825 




30 


4.050 


.390 


3.390 


Carrots 


1 


.114 


.008 


.092 




5 


.570 


.040 


.460 




10 


1.140 


.080 


.920 




15 


1.710 


.120 


1.380 




20 


2.280 


.160 


1.840 




25 


2.850 


.200 


2.300 




30 


3.420 


.240 


2.760 


Rutabagas 


1 


.114 


.010 


.096 




5 


.570 


.050 


.480 




10 


1.140 


.100 


.960 


* 


15 


1.710 


.150 


1.440 




20 


2.280 


.200 


1.920 




25 


2.850 


.250 


2.400 




30 


3.420 


.300 


2.880 



APPENDIX 



363 



Table 35. The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 





Lbs. 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total 


Kind of Feed 


OF 

Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Succulent Roughage. (Con- 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


tinued) 










Corn silage . . . . . 


1 


.264 


.014 


.172 




5 


1.320 


.070 


.860 




10 


2.640 


.140 


1.720 




15 


3.960 


.210 


2.580 




20 


5.280 


.280 


3.440 




25 


6.600 


.350 


4.300 




30 


7.920 


.420 


5.160 




35 


9.240 


.490 


6.020 




40 


10.560 


.560 


6.880 


^ 


45 


11.880 


.630 


7.740 




50 


13.200 


.700 


8.600 


Dried Roughage 










Timothy hay .... 


1 


.868 


.028 


.481 




4 


3.472 


.112 


1.924 




6 


5.208 


.168 


2.886 




8 


6.944 


.224 


3.848 




10 


8.680 


.280 


4.810 




12 


10.416 


.336 


5.772 




14 


12.152 


.392 


6.734 




16 


13.888 


.448 


7.696 




18 


15.624 


.504 


8.658 




20 


17.360 


.560 


9.620 


Red clover hay . . . 


1 


.847 


.071 


.490 




4 


3.388 


.284 


1.960 




6 


5.082 


.426 


2.940 




8 


6.776 


.568 


3.920 


•V 


10 


8.470 


.710 


4.900 




12 


10.164 


.852 


5.880 




14 


11.858 


.994 


6.860 




16 


13.552 


1.136 


7.840 




18- 


15.246 


1.278 


8.820 




20 


16.940 


1.420 


9.800 



364 



APPENDIX 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 





Lbs. 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total, 


Kind op Feed 


OF' 

Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Dried Roughage. (Con- 




Lh. 


Lh. 


L6. 


tinued) 










Alfalfa hay 


1 


.918 


.105 


.530 




4 


3.672 


.420 


2.120 




6 


5.508 


.630 


3.180 




8 


7.344 


.840 


4.240 




10 


9.180 


1.050 


5.300 




12 


11.016 


1.260 


6.360 




14 


12.852 


1.470 


7.420 




16 


14.688 


1.680 


8.480 




18 


16.524 


1.890 


9.540 




20 


18.360 


2.100 


10.600 


Mixed grasses and clover 


1 


.871 


.058 


.505 




4 


3.484 


.232 


2.020 




6 


5.226 


.348 


3.030 




8 


6.968 


.464 


4.040 




10 


8.710 


.580 


5.050 




12 


10.452 


.696 


6.060 




14 


12.194 


.812 


7.070 




16 


13.936 


.928 


8.080 




18 


15.678 


1.044 


9.090 




20 


17.420 


1.160 


10.100 


Hungarian hay . . . 


1 


.923 


.045 


.590 




4 


3.692 


.180 


2.360 




6 


5.538 


.270 


3.540 




8 


7.384 


.360 


4.720 




10 


9.230 


.450 


5.900 




12 


11.076 


.540 


7.080 




14 


12.922 


.630 


8.260 




16 


14.768 


.720 


9.440 


Millet hay . . . . . 


1 


.840 


.020 


.459 




4 


3.360 


.080 


1.836 




6 


5.040 


.120 


2.754 




8 


6.720 


.160 


3.672 



APPENDIX 



365 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OP 

Feed 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 

Nutriment 


Dried Roughage. (Con- 




Lfe. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


tinued) 










Millet hay 


10 


8.400 


.200 


4.590 




12 


10.080 


.240 


5.508 




14 


11.760 


.280 


6.426 




16 

- 


13.440 


.320 


7.344 


Corn fodder .... 


1 


.578 


.025 


.398 




5 


2.890 


.125 


1.990 




8 


4.624 


.200 


3.184 




12 


6.936 


.300 


4.776 


* 


15 


8.670 


.375 


5.970 




18 


10.404 


.450 


7.164 




20 


11.560 


.500 


7.960 


Corn stover .... 


1 


.595 


.014 


.342 




5 


2.975 


.070 


1.710 




8 


4.760 


.112 


2.736 




12 


7.140 


.168 


4.104 




15 


8.925 


.210 


5.130 




18 


10.710 


.252 


6.156 




20 


11.900 


.280 


6.840 


Dried sorghum . . . 


1 


.889 


.027 


.457 




4 


3.556 


.108 


1.828 




6 


5.334 


.162 


2.742 




8 


7.112 


.216 


3.656 




10 


8.890 


.270 


4.570 




12 


10.668 


.324 


5.484 




14 


12.446 


.378 


6.398 




16 


14.224 


.432 


7.312 




18 


16.002 


.486 


8.226 




20 


17.780 


.540 


9.140 


Oat straw 


1 


.908 


.013 


.426 




3 


2.724 


.039 


1.278 




5 


4.540 


.065 


2.130 




8 


7.264 


.104 


3.408 



366 



APPENDIX 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OP 

Feed 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 

Nutriment 


Dried Roughage. (Con- 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


tinued) 










Oat straw 


12 


10.896 


.156 


5.112 




15 


13.620 


.195 


6.390 




18 


16.344 


.234 


7.668 


Wheat straw .... 


1 


.904 


.008 


.369 




3 


2.712 


.024 


1.107 




5 


4.520 


.040 


1.845 




8 


7.232 


.064 


2.952 




12 


10.848 


.096 


4.428 




15 


13.560 


.120^ 


5.535 




18 


16.272 


.144 


6.642 


Concentrates 










Corn (dent) .... 


1 


.894 


.078 


.843 




2 


1.788 


.156 


1.686 




3 


2.682 


.234 


2.529 




4 


3.576 


.312 


3.372 




5 


4.470 


.390 


4.215 




6 


5.364 


.468 


5.058 




7 


6.258 


.546 


5.901 




8 


7.152 


.624 


6.744 




9 


8.046 


.702 


7.587 


Corn and cob meal . . 


1 


.849 


.044 


.709 




2 


1.698 


.088 


1.418 




3 


2.547 


.132 


2.127 




4 


3.396 


.176 


2.836 




5 


4.245 


.220 


3.545 




6 


5.094 


.264 


4.254 




7 


5.943 


.308 


4.963 




8 


6.792 


.352 


5.672 




9 


7.641 


.396 


6.381 


Hominy chop .... 


1 


.904 


.068 


.840 




2 


1.808 


.136 


1.680 




3 


2.712 


.204 


2.520 




4 


3.616 


.272 


3.360 



APPENDIX 



367 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OF 


Dry Sub- 


DiGKSTlBLE 


Total 




Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




Lh. 


Lb. 




Hominy chop .... 




Lb. 




5 


4.520 


.340 


4.200 




6 


5.424 


.408 


5.040 




7 


6.328 


.476 


5.880 




8 


7.232 


.544 


6.720 




9 


8.136 


.612 


7.560 


Gluten feed .... 


1 


.908 


.213 


.806 




2 


1.816 


.426 


1.612 




3 


2.724 


.639 


2.418 




4 


3.632 


.852 


3.224 




5 


4.540 


1.065 


4.030 




6 


5.448 


1.278 


4.836 




7 


6.356 


1.491 


5.642 




8 


7.264 


1.704 


6.448 




9 


8.172 


1.917 


7.254 


Distillers' dried grains . 


1 


.924 


.228 


.886 




2 


1.848 


.456 


1.772 




3 


2.772 


.684 


2.658 




4 


3.696 


.912 


3.544 




5 


.4.620 


1.140 


4.430 




6 


5.544 


1.368 


5.316 




7 


6.468 


1.596 


6.202 




8 


7.392 


1.824 


7.088 




9 


8.316 


2.052 


7.974 , 


Oats . . 


1 


.896 


.088 


.675 




2 


1.792 


.176 


1.350 


-. 


3 


2.688 


.264 


2.025 




4 


3.584 


.352 


2.700 




5 


4.480 


.440 


3.375 




6 


5.376 


.528 


4.050 


\ 


7 


6.272 


.616 


4.725 




8 


7.168 


.704 


5.400 




9 


8.064 


.792 


6.075 



368 



APPENDIX 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



TCTTsjTk ow TTiriprfc 


Lbs. 

OF 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total 


XvXXNl^ \Ji: X JijrjMJ 


Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




U. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Wheat 


1 


.895 


.100 


.798 




2 


1.790 


.200 


1.596 




3 


2.685 


.300 


2.394 




4 


3.580 


.400 


3.192 




5 


4.475 


.500 


3.990 


X 


6 


5.370 


.600 


4.788 




7 


6.265 


.700 


5.586 




8 


7.160 


.800 


6.384 




9 


8.055 


.900 


7.182 


Wheat bran .... 


1 


.881 


.119 


.595 




2 


1.762 


.238 


1.190 




3 


2.643 


.357 


1.785 




4 


3.524 


.476 


2.380 




5 


4.405 


.595 


2.975 




6 


5.286 


.714 


3.570 




7 


6.167 


.833 


4.165 




8 


7.048 


.952 


4.760 




9 


7.929 


1.071 


5.355 


Wheat middlings . . . 


1 


.900 


.169 


.797 




2 


1.800 


.338 


1.594 




3 


2.700 


.507 


2.391 




4 


3.600 


.676 • 


3:i88 




5 


4.500 


.845 


3.985 




6 


5.400 


1.014 


4.782 




7 


6.300 


1.183 


5.579 




8 


7.200 


1.352 


6.376 




9 


8.100 


1.521 


7.173 


Red dog flour .... 


1 


.915 


.162 


.809 




2 


1.830 


.324 


1.618 




3 


2.745 


.486 


2.427 




4 


3.660 


.648 


3.236 




5 


4.575 


.810 


4.045 




6 


5.490 


.972 


4.854 




7 


6.405 


1.134 


5.663 




8 


7.320 


1.296 


6.472 




9 


8.235 


1.458 


7.281 



APPENDIX 



369 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OF 

Feed 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 

Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




Lb. 


Lh. 


Lh. 


Barley 


1 


.892 


.084 


.773 




2 


1.784 


.168 


1.546 




3 


2.676 


.252 


2.319 




4 


3.568 


.336 


3.092 




5 


4.460 


.420 


3.865 




6 


"5.352 


.504 


4.638 




8 


6.244 


.588 


5.411 




7 


7.136 


.672 


6.184 




9 


8.028 


.756 


6.957 


Malt sprouts .... 


1 


.905 


.203 


.695 




2 


1.810 


.406 


1.390 




3 


2.715 


.609 


2.085 




4 


3.620 


.812 


2.780 


' 


5 


4.525 


1.015 


3.475 




6 


5.430 


1.218 


4.170 




7 


6.335 


1.421 


4.865 




8 


7.240 


1.624 


5.560 


' 


9 


8.145 


1.827 


6.255 


Brewers' wet grains . . 


1 


.243 


.039 


.164 




5 


1.215 


.195 


.820 




10 


2.430 


.390 


1.640 




15 


3.645 


.585 


2.460 




20 


4.860 


.780 


3.280 




25 


6.075 


.975 


4.100 




30 


7.290 


1.170 


4.920 




35 


8.505 


1.365 


5.740 


Brewers' dried grains 


1 


.913 


.200 


.657 




2 


1.826 


.400 


1.314 


^. 


3 


. 2.739 


.600 


1.971 




4 


3.652 


.800 


2.628 




5 


4.565 


1.000 


3.285 




6 


5.478 


1.200 


3.942 




7 


6.391 


1.400 


4.599 




8 


7.304 


1.600 


5.256 




9 


8.217 


1.800 


5.913 



2b 



370 



APPENDIX 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OF 

Feed 


Dry Sub- 
stance 


Digestible 
Protein 


Total 
Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




U. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Rye 


1 


.913 


.095 


.815 




2 


1.826 


.190 


1.630 




3 


2.739 


.285 


2.445 




4 


3.652 


-.380 


3.260 




.5 


4.565 


.475 


4.075 




6 


5.478 


.570 


4.890 




7 


6.391 


.665 


5.705 


' 


8 


7.304 


.760 


6.520 




9 


8.217 


.855 


7.335 


Canada field peas . . 


1 


.850 


.197 


.699 




2 


1.700 


.394 


1.398 




3 


2.550 


.591 


2.097 




4 


3.400 


.788 


2.796 




5 


4.250 


.985 


3.495 




6 


5.100 


1.182 


4.194 




7 


5.950 


1.379 


4.893 




8 


6.800 


1.576 


5.592 




9 


7.650 


1.773 


6.291 


Cottonseed meal . 


1 


.930 


.376 


.806 




2 


1.860 


.752 


1.612 




3 


2.790 


1.128 


2.418 




4 


3.720 


1.504 


3.224 




5 


4.650 


1.880 


4.030 




6 


5.580 


2.256 


4.836 




7 


6.510 


2.632 


5.642 




8 


7.440 


3.008 


6.448 




9 


8.370 


3.384 


7.254 


Linseed oil meal . . . 


1 


.902 


.302 


.777 




2 


1.804 


.604 


1.554 




3 


2.706 


.906 


2.331 




4 


3.608 


1.208 


3.108 




5 


4.510 


1.510 


3.885 




6 


5.412 


1.812 


4.662 



APPENDIX 



371 



Table 35. 



The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total 


Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




Lh. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Linseed oil meal . . . 


7 


6.314 


2.114 


5.439 




8 


7.216 


2.416 


6.216 




9 


8.118 


2.718 


6.993 


Buckwheat middlings . 


1 


.872 


.227 


.739 




2 


1.744 


.454 


1.478 




3 


2.616 


.681 


2.217 




4 


3.488 


.908 


2.956 




5 


4.360 


1.135 


3.695 




6 


5.232 


1.362 


4.434 




7 


6.104 


1.589 


5.173 




8 


6.976 


1.816 


5.912 




9 


7.848 


2.043 


6.651 


Culled beans .... 


1 


.859 


.226 


.759 




2 


1.718 


.452 


1.518 




3 


2.577 


.678 


2.277 




4 


3.436 


.904 


3.036 




5 


4.295 


1.130 


3.795 




6 


5.154 


1.356 


4.554 




7 


6.013 


1.582 


5.313 




8 


6.872 


1.808 


6.072 




9 


7.731 


2.034 


6.831 


Sugar molasses . . . 


1 


.741 


.014 


.606 




2 


1.482 


.028 


1.212 




3 


2.223 


.042 


1.818 




4 


2.964 


.056 


2.424 




5 


3.705 


.070 


3.030 




6 


4.446 


.084 


3.636 


^ 


7 


5.187 


.098 


4.242 




8 


5.928 


.112 


4.848 




9 


6.669 


.126 


5.454 


Skimmed milk . . . 


1 


.094 


.029 


.089 




4 


.376 


.116 


.356 


r 


6 


.564 


.174 


.534 



372 



APPENDIX 



Table 35. The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



TCiivrn ni? T^^T^■Im 


Lbs. 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total 


JL^X1>1^ \jr J, EjZjU 


Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Skimmed milk . . . 


8 


.752 


.232 


.712 




10 


.940 


.290 


.890 




12 


1.128 


.348 


1.068 




14 


1.316 


.406 


1.246 




16 


1.504 


.464 


1.424 




18 


1.692 


.522 


1.602 




20 


' 1.880 


.580 


1.780 




22 


2.068 


.638 


1.958 




24 


2.256 


.696 


2.136 


Buttermilk 


1 


.098 


.038 


.100 




3 


.294 


.114 


.300 




5 


.490 


.190 


.500 




8 


.784 


.304 


.800 




10 


.980 


.380 


1.000 




12 


1.176 


.456 


1.200 




15 


1.470 


.570 


1.500 




18 


1.764 


.684 


1.800 




20 


1.960 


.760 


2.000 




25 


2.450 


.950 


2.500 




30 


2.940 


1.140 


3.000 


Wet beet pulp .... 


1 


.102 


.005 


.082 




5 


.510 


.025 


.410 




10 


1.020 


.050 


.820 




15 


1.530 


.075 


1.230 




20 


2.040 


.100 


1.640 




25 


2.550 


.125 


2.050 




30 


3.060 


.150 


2.460 




35 


3.570 


.175 


2.870 




40 


4.080 


.200 


3.280 


Dried beet pulp . . . 


1 


.916 


.041 


.690 




2 


1.832 


.082 


1.380 




3 


2.748 


.123 


2.070 




4 


3.664 


.164 


2.760 



APPENDIX 



373 



Table 35. The Amounts of Digestible Nutrients in Differ- 
ent Amounts of Feeds. (Continued) 



Kind of Feed 


Lbs. 

OF 


Dry Sub- 


Digestible 


Total 




Feed 


stance 


Protein 


Nutriment 


Concentrates. (Continued) 




Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Dried beet pulp . . . 


5 


4.580 


.205 


3.450 




6 


5.496 


.246 


4.140 




7 


6.412 


.287 


4.830 




8 


7.328 


.328 


5.520 




9 


8.244 


.369 


6.210 



INDEX 



Numbers refer to pages. 



Abomasum, 35-6 

digestion in, 42-4 
Absorption of nutrients, 47-55 

work of, 99-100 
Acid in gastric juice, 41-2 
Adulteration of feeds, 223-6 
Age of animal, influence on digesti- 
bility, 67 

efficiency of gains, 313-5 

fat content of body, 28-9 

protein content of body, 29-30 

value of manure, 3. 24 

water content of body, 27 
Alfalfa hay, 237-41 

composition, 239 

digestibility of protein of, 64 

compared with clover, 237, 239 

curing, 239 

feeding value, 239 

for breeding stock, 240 
fattening stock, 240 
growing stock, 239-40 
milk cows, 241 
work horses, 241 

ground, see Alfalfa meal 

net energy value, 239 
Alfalfa meal, 300-1 
Alfalfa pasture, 272-3 
Alfalfa silage, 294 
Alfalfa soUage, 267-8, 269, 272 
Alfalfa straw, 264-5 
Alimentary tract, 34 
Alsike clover, see Clover, alsike 
Amides, 11 

Amino acids, absorption of, from in- 
testine, 48, 51 

definition, 10 

end products of oxidation of, 81 

function of, in.animal body, 81-2 



Amino acids, influence on animals oi 
rations deficient in, 11, 82-7 
in large intestine, 47, 52 
small intestine, 45, 46, 51 
absorption, 48, 51 
Amount of feed, how determined in 
compounding rations, 112 
influence of, on digestibility of 
feedingstuffs, 72-3 
efficiency of grains, 307-9 
Amylase, pancreatic, 44, 45, 53 

saHvary, 39, 40, 41, 52-3 
Amylopsin, see Amylase, pancreatic 
Animals, see Farm animals 
Apple pomace, 304 
Armsby's energy values for feeding- 
stuffs, Appendix Table 30 
feeding standards, 124-8, 148, 149, 

Appendix Table 34 
standard for dairy cows compared 
with other standards, 148 
Van Norman modification of, 
128-9 
values for dry substance, digest- 
ible protein and energy in 
feeding stuffs, Appendix 
Table 31 
Artichokes, 299-300 
Ash, see Mineral matter 
Assimilation, see Absorption 
Available energy, see Metabolizable 
energy 

Bacteria, action in digestion, 46-7, 52, 

53-4 
Bagasse, sorghum, for silage, 295 
Balanced ration, 119 

See also Ration 
Bales of hay, weights of, 115 



375 



376 



INDEX 



Barley, 176-9 

composition, 176 

for breeding stock, 179 
fattening stock, 178 
growing stock, 177-8 
milk cows, 179 
work horses, 179 

net energy value, 176 

vs. corn for pork and bacon pro- 
duction, 176 

See also Cereals, Feedingstuffs 
Barley by-products, 199-202 
Barley hay, 254-5 
Barley pasture, 284 
Barley straw, 264 
Beans, field, 186 

velvet, see Velvet bean 
Beef cattle, see Steers 
Beef production as influenced by 

grade of animal, 312-3 
Beet, mangel, see Mangels 

sugar, see Sugar beet 
Beet molasses, see Molasses 
Beet pulp, 228-9 
Beet pulp silage, 295 
Beet tops, 304 
Beggar weed hay, 244 
Beggar weed pasture, 274 
Bermuda grass, 250, 253 
Bermuda hay, 250, 253 
Bermuda pasture, 282 
Bile, 38, 44, 45-6, 54 
Bloat in farm animals, 43 

how prevented, 271, 302 
Blood flour, 219 

Blood meal or dried blood, 218-9 
Bluegrass pasture, Canada, 281 

Kentucky, 278-80 
Body temperature of farm animals, 

103-5 
Body weight of farm animals, 
composition of increase in, 
30-3 
Bomb calorimeter, 93-5, 97 
Bone meal, raw, 219-20 

steamed, 220 
Bones of farm animals, influenced by 
feed, 78, 79-80, 83, 84-6 

mineral matter in, 27, 28, 77 

water in, 27 



Bran, see names of kinds of bran as 

Wheat bran 
Breed or type of animal, influenfte of, 
on digestibility of feeding- 
stuffs, 67 
efficiency of gains, 312-3 
value of manure, 324 

value in beef production, 312-3 
Breeding stock, alfalfa hay for, 240 

alfalfa straw for, 264-5 

barley for, 179 

barley straw for, 264 

Canada field peas for, 184 

carrots for, 298 

corn for, 164-5 

corn silage for, 292-3 

corn stover for, 261 

cottonseed meal or cake for, 212 

gluten feed for, 191 ' 

Kentucky bluegrass for, 278 

linseed meal or cake for, 208-9 

mangels for, 298 

oats for, 172-3 

oat straw for, 264 

red clover hay for, 236-7 « 

rye for, 175 

rye pasture for, 283 

timothy hay for, 247 

wheat bran for, 196 

wheat for, 169 

wheat middlings for, 198 
Brewers' grains, 199-201 
Brome grass, 253 
Brome hay, 253 
Brome pasture, 282-3 
Broom corn fodder, 260 
Buckwheat by-products, 205 
Bull and Emmett standard of protein 
requirementsforlambs, 132-3 
Butter, influence of coconut meal or 
cake on, 215 

cottonseed meal or cake on, 212 

gluten feed on, 191 

linseed meal or cake on, 209 

rye on, 173 

soybeans on, 185 
Buttermilk, 229 

Cabbage, 302 
Caecum, 36 



INDEX 



Sll 



Calcium, excretion from animal body, 

78 
in bodies of farm animals, 28 
influence on pigs of ration deficient 

in, 79-80 
required for growth, 78-80, 131 
Calcium phosphate, 79 
Calorie, 93 
Calorimeter, bomb, 93-5, 96, 97 

respiration, 96-7 
Calves 

(For the value of a particular feed 
for calves, see name of feed) 
ash of feed excreted in manure, 323 
composition of bodies, 26 

increase in body weight, 32 
digestible organic matter required 

for 1 lb. of gain, 315 
efficiency of gains, 315 
fat in bodies, 26, 28 
increase in body weight, composi- 
tion, 32 
manure of, ash and nitrogen of feed 

excreted in, 323 
nitrogen of feed excreted in manure, 

323 
protein in bodies, 26, 30 
rations for, 110 
water in bodies, 26, 27 
Canada blue grass, 281 
Canada field pea, 183-4 
Cane molasses, 227 
Cane sugar, 13, 14 

digestion of, 45, 46, 53 
Cannery refuse for silage, 295 
Capacity of animal, influence on 

efficiency of gains, 315-6 
Capillaries, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 
Carbohydrates, 13 
absorption of, 88 
a source of energy, 87-8 
composition and subclasses of, 14 
fat formed from^ 87-9 
function in animal body, 87-9 
glycogen formed from, 87-8 
gross energy of, 95 
in animal body, 30 
influence on digestibility of excess 

of, in ration, 73-4 
net energy of, 101 



Carbohydrates, should be limited for 
breeding stock, 131 

See also Crude fiber and Nitrogen- 
free extract 
Carbon dioxide, 43, 54 
Carbonaceous concentrates, 106 
Carbonic acid gas, see Carbon dioxide 
Carrots, 298-9 
Casein, 42, 45, 51, 82 
Cassava, 300 

Cattle, see Steers, Cow, Cows, dairy 
Cellulose, 13, 14, 16-7 

digestion of, 43, 53 
Cereal by-products, 188-205 

crude fiber in, 17-8 

crude protein in, 12-3 

fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 

water in, 5-6 
Cereal grains, see Cereals 
Cereals, 158-83 

crude fiber in, 17-8 

crude protein in, 12-3 

fat in, 21-2 

mineral matter in, 8-9 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 

water in, 5-6 
Chlorine in feedingstuffs, 8 
Chufas, 300 
Chyme, 44 
Climate, influence of, on efficiency of 

rations, 319 
Clover, alsike, 242, 273 

bloat from, how prevented, 271 

crimson, 243, 274 

for soilage, 267-8 

Japan, see Lespedeza 

mammoth, 241-2, 273 

red, 234, 270-2 

sweet, 242-3, 273 

white, 273 
Clover hay, alsike, 242 

crimson, 243 

Japan, see Lespedeza hay 

mammoth, 241-2 

red, 234-7 

composition, 234 

energy value, 234 

for breeding stock, 236-7 



378 



INDEX 



Clover hay, red, for fattening stock, 
236 
growing stock, 235-6 
milk cows, 237 
work horses, 237 
time to cut, 235 
sweet, 242-3 
Clover pasture and soilage, 267-8 
alsike, 273 
crimson, 274 

Japan, see Lespedeza pasture 
mammoth, 273 
red, 270-2 

bloat from, how prevented, 271 
composition, 270-1 
net energy value, 271 
sweet, 273 
white, 273 
Clover silage, 294 
Clover straw, 264-5 
Coarse forage, see Roughage 
Cocoa shells, 230 
Coconut meal or cake, 214-5 
Coefficients, of digestibility, 56-66 
definition, 56 
how determined, 56-63 
indirect method of calculating, 60-3 

errors in, 62-3 
not exact, 59-60 
of crude fiber, 65-6 
crude protein, 64 
fat, 66 

feeds that cannot be fed alone, 
how determined, 60-3 
mineral matter, 63-4 
nitrogen-free extract, 64-5 
utilization of energy, 102-3 
Colts, rations for, 109 

(For the value of a particular feed 
for colts, see name of feed) 
Combustion, heat of, 93-5 
Commercial feeds, 223-6 

influence of, on digestibility of 

ration, 70-1 
standards for use in buying, 224-5 
Common salt, see Salt 

vetch, see Vetch, common 
Composition of farm animals, 25-33 
feedingstuffs, 1-24, Appendix 
Table 28 



Composition of farm animals, increase 
in body weight of farm an- 
imals, 30-3 
meat-producing animals, 26 
ration as affecting its efficiency, 

306-7 
steers, 26, 29 
Compounding of rations, 107-12 
Compounds, 2-3 

Concentrates, average weights of, 114 
carbonaceous, 106 
compared with roughages in diges- 
tibility of : 
crude fiber, 65 
crude protein, 64 
fat, 66 

nitrogen-free extract, 64-5 
estimating weights of, 112-3 
in rations, 112-3 

proportion of, to roughages in 
ration as affecting efficiency 
of gains, 307 
valuation of, as compared with 

roughages, 332-3 
weights of, 114 
Condition of animal, influence of, on 
composition of body, 26 
digestibility, 67 
fat content of body, 28 
mineral content of body, 28 
protein content of body, 30 
water content of body, 27 
Cooking, influence of, on digesti- 
bility, 69 
efficiency of ration, 310 
Corn, 159-66 

a fattening feed, 161, 163 
by-products, 188-93 
composition of, 161 
deficient in mineral matter and 

protein, 78-9, 83, 161 
dent, 160 
ffint, 160 

for breeding stock, 164-5 
fattening stock, 163-4 
growing stock, 162-3 
milk cows, 165 
work horses, 165-6 
forms in which fed, 161-2 
net energy value of, 161 



INDEX 



379 



Corn, for silage, 290 
soft, 166 

source of starch and glucose, 188 

yellow compared with white, 160-1 
Corn bran, 191-2 
Corn chop, see Corn meal 
Corn fodder, 256-7 
Corn fodder silage, 289-94 
Corn forage, see Corn fodder. Corn 

stover. Corn pasture 
Corn gluten feed, see Gluten feed 
Corn meal, see Corn oil or germ 

meal 
Corn molasses, see Molasses 
Corn oil, 20 

Corn oil or germ meal, 192 
Corn pasture, 284-6 
Corn silage, see Silage, corn 
Cornstalk disease, 284-5 
Cornstarch, 13 
Corn stover, 261-2 
Cost of feeds considered in formu- 
lating rations, 330-3 
Cotton seed, 187 
Cottonseed by-products, 210-3 
Cottonseed cake, see Cottonseed meal 

or cake 
Cottonseed feed, 213-4 
Cottonseedrhull bran, 214 
Cottonseed hulls, 214 
Cottonseed meal or cake, 210-13 

cold pressed, 213 

composition of, 210 

dangerous for hogs, 211, 212 

for breeding stock, 212 
fattening stock, 211-2 
growing stock, 211 
milk cows, 212 

work horses, 212-3 

grades of, 211 

makes hard butter, 212 

net energy value of. 210 
Cottonseed oil, 20^ 
Cow, large intestine of, 37 

manure excreted by, per year, 321 

saliva secreted by, 40 

salivary glands of, 38 

small intestine of, 36 

stomach of, 35-6 

See also Cows, dairy 



Cowpea, 184 , 
Cowpea hay, 244-5 
Cowpea pasture, 275, 277 
Cowpea silage, 294 
Cowpea straw, 265-6 
Cows, dairy 

(For the value of a particular feed 
for dairy cows, see name of 
feed) 
Armsby feeding standards for, 124- 

5, 148 
breed of, as affecting requirements 

for milk production, 147 
calculating rations for, 126-8, 129, 

142, 144-5, 145 
climate as affecting efficiency of 

rations of, 319 
Eckle's feeding standards for, 147- 

8 
exercise for, 316 
grinding feed for, 309-10 
Haecker's feeding standards for, 

140-1, 148 
mineral matter of feed exct-eted by, 

322, 323 
products of, per 100 lbs. digestible 

organic matter, 311 
rations for, calculating, 126-8, 129, 
142, 144-5, 145 
examples of, 110 
size of, 309 
requirements for milk production, 
139-48 
Savage feeding standards for, 142-5, 
148 
shelter for, 319 
shredding corn stover for, 310 
size of ration for, 309 
temperature as affecting efficiency 

of rations of, 319 
Van Norman feeding standards 

for, 128-9 
WoU and Humphrey feeding stand- 
ards for, 145-6, 148 
Cracklings, 219 

Crimson clover, see Clover, crimson 
Crops for the silo, 287-95 
Crude fiber, see Fiber 
Crude protein, see Protein, crude 
Cud, chewing the, 42-3 



380 



INDEX 



Dent corn, 160 
Dextrin, 14 

Dietrich's feeding standard for grow- 
ing pigs, 133 
market hogs, 137 
DigestibiHty, 56-75 
coefficients of, 56-66 
definition, 56 
how determined, 56-63 
indirect method of calculating, 
60-3 
errors in, 62-3 
not exact, 59-60 
of crude fiber, 65-6 
crude protein, 64 
fat, 66 
feeds that cannot be fed alone, 

how determined, 60-3 
mineral matter, 63-4 
nitrogen-free extract, 64-5 
influence of addition of nitrogenous 
nutrients to ration on, 74 
age of animal on, 67 
amounts of feed on, 72-3 
breed of animal on, 67 ' 
condition of animal on, 67 
cooking of feeds on, 69 
curing of feeds on, 71 
excess of non-nitrogenous nu- 
trients in ration on, 73 
fermenting of feeds on, 69 
frequency of feeding and water- 
ing animals on, 70 
grinding feed on, 69-70 
individuality of animals on, 68 
palatability of ration on, 68-9 
patent stock feeds on, 70-1 
preparation of feeds on, 69-70 
proportion of different nutri- 
ents in ration on, 73-4 
salt on, 71 

soaking of feeds on, 69 
species of animal on, 67-8 
stage of growth of plant on, 

71-2 
storage of feeds on, 72 
sweating of feeds on, 69 
work of animal on, 67-8 
of crude fiber, 65-6 
crude protein, 64 



Digestibility, of fat, 66 

feedingstuffs, 56-66, Appendix 

Tables 29, 30, 31, 35 
mineral matter, 63-4 
nitrogen-free extract, 64-5 
relation of, to efficiency of ration, 
307 
value of manure, 323 
Digestible nutrients, in feedingstuffs, 
74-5, Appendix Tables 29, 
30, 31, 35 
yield of, per acre by grains and 
seeds, 159 
Digestion, 40-7 

energy expended in, 99-100 
in large intestine, 46-7 
mouth, 40-1 
small intestine, 44-6 
stomach, 41-4 
of crude fiber, 53-4 
fat, 54-5 

mineral matter, 51 
nitrogen-free extract, 52-3 
nutrients, 40-55 
protein, 51-2 
organs of, 34-8 
work involved in, 99-100 
Digestion coefficients, 56-66 
definition, 56 
how determined, 56-63 
indirect method of calculating, 
60-3 
errors in, 62-3 
not exact, 59-60 
of crude fiber, 65-6 
crude protein, 64 
fat, 66 
feeds that cannot be fed alone, 

how determined, 60-3 
feedingstuffs, 56-66 
mineral matter, 63-4 
nitrogen-free extract, 64-5 
Digestion experiments, methods of 

conducting, 56-8 
Digestive system of farm animals, 

34-8 
Distillers' grains, 192-3 
Distillers' slop, 192 
Dried beet pulp, 228-9 
Dried blood, 218-9 



INDEX 



381 



Dried brewers' grains, 200-1 
Dried distillers' grains, 192-3 

Eckles' feeding standards for dairy 

cows, 147-8 
Economy in feeding livestock, 331-5 
Efficiency of rations, 305-19 

influence of age of animal on, 
313-5 
capacity of animal on, 316 
climate on, 319 
digestibility of ration on, 307 
species of animal on, 310-2 
temperature conditions on, 319 
type of animal on, 312-3 
Egyptian corn, see Milo maize 
Elements, 1-2 
Emmer, 179 
Energy, 93-106 

Armsby's values for, in feeding- 
stuffs, Appendix Table 31 
available, see Metabolizable 
bomb calorimeter for determining, 

93-5, 96, 97 
carbohydrates a source of, 87, 88 
coefficient of utilization of, 102-3 
derived from the sun, 92-3 
expended in digestion and absorp- 
tion of nutrients, 99-100 
heat production, 100, 103-5 
vital processes, 98-100 
fat a source of, 89 
gross, 93-5, 95-6 

how determined, 93-5 
of nutrients, 95 
in feedingstuffs, 105, Appendix 
Table 31 
how determined, 93-5, 96-7 
nutrients, 95, 101 
kinds of, 92 
kinetic, 92-3 
losses of, 95, 100, 103-4 
measurement of, 93 
metabolizable, 95-8 
definition, 95 
how determined, 96-7 
uses of, in animal body, 97-8 
net, 100-1 

definition, 100 

how determined, 101 



Energy, net, in feedingstuffs, 105, 
Appendix Table 31 
nutrients, 101 
recovered in work, 103 
required for work of voluntary 
muscles, 101-2 
of animal body compared with 
steam engine, 92-3, 100, 103 
ration liberated in heat by steers, 
100 
potential, 92-3 
protein a source of, 80, 81 
required for work of digestion and 
absorption, 99-100 
heat production, 103-5 
vital processes, 98-100 
voluntary muscles, 101-2 
respiration calorimeter for deter- 
mining, 96-7, 101 
storage of, 105 
units of measurement of, 93 
utilization of, coefficients, 102-3 
Energy values of feeds, Armsby's, 

105, Appendix Table 31 
Engine compared with animals, 92-3, 

100, 103 
Ensilage, see Silage 
Ensiling, method by which green 

fodder is preserved by, 287 
Enterokinase, 46 
Enzymes, 38-40 
Erypsin, 44-5, 46 
Esophagus, 34, 41 
Ether extract, see Fat 
Ewes, concentrates and roughage for, 
112 
(For the value of a particular feed 
for ewes, see name of feed) 
Excrement, see Manure 
Exercise for fattening stock and 

dairy cows, 316 
Exposure, influence of, on efficiency 
of rations, 319 

Farm animals, absorption of nutrients 
by, 47-9, 50-5 
^ge of, as affecting digestibility 
of rations, 67 
efficiency of rations, 313-5 
value of manure, 324 



382 



INDEX 



Farm animals, ash in bodies of, 26, 
27-8 
of feed excreted in manure of, 
323 
breed of, as afTecting digestibility 

of rations, 67 
capacity of, as affecting efficiency 

of rations, 315-6 
carbohydrates in bodies of, 30 
composition of bodies of, 25-33 
increase in l)ody weight of, 
30-3 
compounding of rations for, 107-12 
condition of, as afTecting digesti- 
bility of ration, 67 
digestion of nutrients hy, 40-7, 

50-5 
digestive systems of, 34-8 
efficiency of gains of, 305-19 
energy, use of, by, 92-3, 97-100, 

101-5 
fat in bodies of, 26, 28-9 
feed requirements of, 119-49 
feeding standards for, 119-29, 
130, 131-4, 136-8, 139-49, 
Appendix Tables 
grade of, as affecting efficiency 

of rations, 312-3 
heat production in bodies of, 103-5 
individuality of, as affecting di- 
gestibility of ration, 68 
increase in body weight of, com- 
position, 30-3 
manure voided by, per year, 321 
mineral matter in bodies of, 26, 
27-8 
of feed excreted in manure of, 
323 
nitrogen of feed excreted in 

manure of, 323 
phosphorus of feed excreted in 

manure of, 323 
protein in bodies of, 26, 29-30 
rations for, compounding of, 107- 

12 
requirements for fattening, 135-7 
growth, 130-4 
maintenance, 129-30 
pregnancy, 134 
self-feeders for, 152-6 



Farm animals, species of, as affecting 
digestibility of rations, 66-7 
efficiency of rations, 310-2 
value of manure, 324-5 
storage of energy by, 105 
temperament of, as affecting effi- 
ciency of rations, 316 
treatment of, as affecting efficiency 

of rations, 316-7 
type of, as affecting efficiency of 

rations, 312-3 
water in bodies of, 26-7 
work of, as affecting digestibility 
of rations, 67-8 
Farm manure, ^ee Manure 
Fat, 18-21 

absorption of, 49, 54-5 

a source of muscular energy and 

body fat, 88, 89 
composition of, 18-9 
digestibility of, 66 
digestion of, 42, 45, 46, 54-5 
energy values of, as compared 

with other nutrients, 19 
function in animal body, 89 
gross energy of, 95 
in animal body formed from 
carbohydrates of feed, 87, 
88-9 
crude protein of feed, 81 
fat of feed, 89 
bodies of farm animals, 26, 28-9 
feedingstuffs, 21-2 

how determined, 21 
increase in body weight, 3Q-3 
soap making, 20, 45 
vegetable substances, 18 
net energy value of, 101 
wool, 20 " 
Fattening, composition of increase 
during, 31-3 
factors affecting, 306-19 
influence of age of animal on, 
313-5 
amount of ration on, 307-9 
capacity of animal on, 315-6 
climatic conditions on, 319 
composition of ration on, 306-7 
digestibility of ration on, 307 
grade of animal on', 312-3 



INDEX 



383 



Fattening, influence of length of fat- 
tening period on, 317-8 
preparation of ration on, 309-10 
previous treatment of animal 

on, 316-7 
species of animal on, 310-2 
temperament of animal on, 316 
temperature on, 319 
type of animal on, 312-3 
object of, 31 

requirehients of animals for, 315-7 
Fattening period, length of, as affect- 
ing efficiency of rations, 
317-H 
Fattening process, what it is, 31 
Fatty tissues, storage of, see Fatten- 
ing 
Feces, 47 

energy lost in, 95 
Feed, amounts of, how determined, 
112-3 
influence of, on digestibility of 

ration, 72-3 
efficiency of ration, 307-8 
influence of preparation of, on 
digestibility of ration, 69- 
70, 72-3 
efficiency of ration, 309-10 
See also Feedingstuffs 
Feed adulteration, 223-6 
Feeding standards, 119-49, 151-2 
for dairy cows, comparison of, 148 
Eckles, 147-8 
Haecker's, 148 
Hansson's, 151-2 
Savage's, 142-5 
Van Norman's, 128-9 
WoU-Humphrey, 145-6 
for farm animals, 'l 20-1, 124, 125-6 
Armsby's, 125-6, Appendix 

Table 34 
Heni-v-Morr4son, 124, Appendix 

Table 33 
WoM-Lehmann, 120-1, Ap- 
pendix Table 32 
for horses, Kellner, 138 

Savage, 134 
for lambs, Bull-Emmett, 132-3, 

136 
for pigS; Dietrich's, 133, 137 



Feeding stuffs, 157-304 
adulteration -of, 223-6 
coefficients of digestibility of, 56- 

75 
commercial values of, as fertilizers, 

327-9 
composition of, 1-24, Appendix 

Tables 28, 29, 30, 31, 35 
crude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
digestibility of, 56-75 
digestible nutrients in, 74-5, Ap- 
pendix Tables 29, 30, 31, 35 
dry substance in, Appendix Tables 

29, 30, 31, 35 
energy values of, 93-7, 100-1, 

105-6, Appendix Table 31 
fat in, 21-2 

fertilizing values of, 320-9 
gross energy of, 93-5 
metabolizable energy of, 95-7 
mineral matter in, 7-9 
netenergv of, 100-1, 105, Appendix 

Table 31 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
nutrients in, 2-3, Appendix Tables 

29, 30, 31, 35 
valuation of, 330-3 
vitamines in, 22-4 
water in, 4-6 
See also Feed 
Feeds, commercial, see Commercial 

feeds 
Feed unit system of calculating ra- 
tions, 149-52 
Fermentation, influence of, on di- 
gestibility of feedingstuffs, 
69 
value of manure, 326-7 
in large intestine, 47, 52, 53 
stomach, 43, 53-4 
Ferments, see Enzymes 
Fertility, buying with feeds, 320-1 
Fertilizers, essential elements of, 320 
Fertilizing values of feedingstuffs, 

320-9 
FeterJta, 258, 260 
Feterita fodder, 258, 260 
Feterita silage, 294-5 
Feterita stover, 262 



384 



INDEX 



Fiber, 14, 16-7 

absorption of digestion — prod- 
ucts of, 48 

digestibility of, 65-6 

digestion of, 43, 47, 53 

how determined in feedingstuffs, 
17 

in feedingstuffs, 17-8 
Fibrin, 45, 51 

Field bean, see Bean, Field 
Field pea, Canada, 183-4 
Finish in fattening animals,* 308-9 
Flax by-product, 209 
Flax feed, 209 
Flax oil feed, 209-10 
Flax screenings, 209 
Flaxseed, 187 

Flaxseed by-product, 206-9 
Flax straw, 264 
Flint corn, 160 
Flour, blood, 219 

red dog, 198-9 
Foals, rations for, 109 

(For the value of a particular 
feed for foals, see name of 
feed) 
Fodder, corn, 256-7 
Fodders, 256-62 

crude fiber in, 17-8 

crude protein in, 12-3 

fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 

water in, 5 
Forage, coarse, see Roughage 
Forage crops, 266-7 
Frequency of feeding and watering, 
influence of, on digestibility 
of ration, 70 
Frosted corn, 166, 290 
Fructose, 14, 45, 46, 53 
Fruit sugar, 14, 45, 46, 53 
Fuel value of feeds, see Energy 

Gain in farm animals, composition 

of, 30-3 
Galactose, 45, 46, 53 
Gallbladder, 38, 45 
Gasoline engines compared with 

farm animals, 102 



Gastric juice, 41 
Gastric lipase, 42, 54 
Gelatine, 45, 51 
Gliadin, 87 
Glucose, 13, 14 

absorption of, 48, 49, 53, 88 
composition of, 19 
formed in digestion, 45, 46, 53 
in animal body, 30, 88 
manufacture of, 188-90 
Gluten feed, 190 
composition of, 190 
for breeding stock, 191 
fattening stock, 191 
growing stock, 190-1 
milk cows, 191 
work horses, 191 
net energy value of, 190 
Gluten meal, 190 

Glycerin, absorption of, in intestine, 
49, 54-5 
in fats, 19 

set free in digestion of fats, 42, 
45, 54-5 
in saponification of fats, 20 
Glycogen, 13 

carbohydrates a source of, 87, 

88 
crude protein a source of, 81 
stored in animal body, 30, 88 
Grade of animal, influence of, on 
efficiency of rations, 312-3 
Grain, salvage, 229 
Grains, 157-87 
brewers', 200-1 
distillers', 192-3 
gross energy value of, 95 
influence of grinding and soaking, 
on digestibility, 69-70 
efficiency of ration, 309-10 
yeast or vinegar-dried, 231 
Grape sugar, see Glucose 
Grasses, 277-86 
Grass hays, 246-55 
crude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 21-2 
mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 



INDEX 



385 



Grass pastures, 277-86 
crude fiber in, 18 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 21-2 
mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 
Grinding feed, influence of, on digest- 
ibility, 69-70 
efficiency of ration, 309-10 
Gross energy, 93-5 
Ground rock phosphate for pigs, 79 
Growth, of animals, composition of 
increase during, 30-3 
mineral requirements for, 78-80 
protein requirements for, 80-7 
requirements for, 130-4 
of plants, influence of stage of, 
on digestibility, 71-2 
Gullet, 34, 41 

Haecker feeding standard for dairy 
cows, 140-2, 148 
growing fattening cattle, 131-2 
Hairy vetch, 245-6, 277 
Hansson feeding standard for dairy 

cows, 151-2 
Hay, measurement of, 115-7 
Hay bales, estimating weights of, 

115-7 
Hays, 232-55 

crude fiber in, 12-3 

crude protein in, 12-3 

digestion by different species of 

animals, 67 
fat in. 21-2 
grass, 246-55 
gross energy of, 95 
leguminous, 232-46 
losses in curing, 72 
mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 
Hay stacks, estimating cubic con- 
tents of, 115-7 
Heat, a form of energy, 92 

controlling loss of, from body, 

104-5 
equalization of, in body, 103-5 
escape of, fro^pi body, 103-4 

2c 



Heat, how produced in body, 103-5 
losses from body, 99-100, 102, 

103-4 
lost in digestion, 99-100, 102 
measurement of, 93 
of body, increased by work, 102 
of combustion, 93-5 
production of, in body, 103-5 
Heating water for farm animals, 104 
Henry-Morrison feedmg standards, 

124, Appendix Table 33 
Herd's grass, see Timothy 
Hogs 

(For the value of a particular 

feed for hogs, see name of 

feed) 
composition of bodies of, 26 
concentrates for, 111-2 
cooking feed for, 310 
Dietrich's feeding standard for 

fattening, 137 
digestible nutrients in feeding stuffs 

for, Appendix Table 30 
digestion experiments with, 58 
digestion harness for, 57 
digestion of roughages by, 67, 312 
fat in bodies of, 26, 28 
fertilizing elements in manure of, 

325 
grinding grain for, 309-10 
influence of patent stock foods on 

digestibility of rations for, 

71 
preparation of feeds on efficiency 

of rations for, 309-10 
large intestines of, 37 

digestion in, 46-7 
maintenance requirements of, 130 
manure excreted by, per year, 321 
mastication by, 41 
mineral matter in bodies of, 26, 28 
products of, per 100 lbs. digestible 

organic matter, 311 
protein in bodies of, 26, 30 
relation of weights of, to efficiency 

of gains, 314 
requirements for fattening, 137 
roughages for, 111-2 
self-feeders for, 153-5 
shelter for, 105 



386 



INDEX 



Hogs — Continued 

small intestines of, 36 
stomach of, 34-5 

total dry substance and digestible 
nutrients in feedingstuffs 
for. Appendix Table 30 
water in bodies of, 26, 27 
See also Pigs 
Hominy chop, 193 
Hominy feed, 193 
Hominy meal, 193 
Honeycomb, see Reticulum 
Horses 

(For the value of a particular feed 

for horses, see name of feed) 

ash of feed excreted in manure by, 

323 
csecum of, 36-7 
calculating rations for, 109-10, 

121-3 
chaffing hay for, 310 
concentrates for, 109-10 
digestible nutrients in feeding- 
stuffs for. Appendix Table 29 
digestion of roughages by, 67, 

138-9 
digestive tract of, 39 
fertilizing elements in manure of, 

325 
grade of, as affecting efficiency of 

rations, 313 
grinding grains for, 69-70, 309, 310 
Kellner feeding standard for work- 
ing, 138 
large intestines of, 36-7 

digestion in, 46-7 
liver of, 38 

maintenance requirements of, 130 
manure, amount excreted per 
year by, 321 
ash of feed excreted in, 323 
fertilizing elements in, 325 
influence of exposure and fer- 
mentation on, 326 
nitrogen of feed excreted in, 323 
mastication by, 41 
nitrogen of feed excreted in manure 

by, 323 
net energy of feed recovered in 
work by, 305 



Horses — Continued 

rations for, calculating, 109-10, 

121-3 
requirements of, for growth, 134 
maintenance, 130 
work, 138-9 
roughages for, 109-10 

digestion of, 67, 138-9 
saliva secreted by, 40 
Savage feeding standard fo. 

growth, 134 
self-feeders for, 156 
shelter for, 105, 319 
small intestines of, 36 
stomach of, 34-5 

total dry substance and digest- 
ible nutrients in feeding- 
stuffs for, Appendix Table 29 
type of, as affecting efficiency of 

rations, 313 
work of, as affecting digestibility 
of rations, 68 
net energy value of feeds recov- 
ered in, 305 
requirements for, 137-9 
Hungarian grass, see Millet 
Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice, 

41-2 
Hydrogen sulphide formed in large 
intestine, 47, 52 

Increase in body weight of farm 
animals, composition of, 
30-3 

Indian corn, see Corn 

Individuality of animals, influence 
of, on digestibility, 68 

Indol, 47, 52 

Inorganic compounds, 2-3 

Inorganic phosphate, see Calcium 
phosphate 

Intestinal juice, 44. 46 

Intestine, large, 36-7 
digestion in, 46-7 

Intestine, small, 36 
digestion in, 44-6 

Invertin, see Sucrase 

Iro'' \z\ feedingstuffs, 7 

Italian rye grass, 253-4 

Italian rye grass hay, 253-4 



INDEX 



387 



Japan clover, see Lespedeza 
Jerusalem artichokes, 299-300 
Johnson grass, 253 
Johnson grass hay, 253 
Johnson grass pasture, 282 
June grass, see Bluegrass 

Kafir corn, 182, 258-60 

Kafir corn fodder, 258-60 

Kafir corn silage, 294-5 

Kafir corn stover, 262 

Kale, 303-4 

Kellner feeding standard for work 

horses, 138 
Kentucky bluegrass, 278-80 
Kinetic energy, 93-4 
Kohlrabi, 303 
Kowliang, 182 
Kowliang fodder, 260 
Kowliang stover, 262 

Labor, see Work 
Lactase, 44 

action of, on lactose, 45, 46, 53 
Lactose, 13, 14 

action of lactase on, 45, 46, 53 
in milk, 52 
Lambs' 

(For the value of a particular 
feed for lambs, see name of 
feed) 
Bull-Emmett standard for fatten- 
ing, 136 
growing, 132-3 
calculating rations for, 112 
composition of bodies of, 26 
concentrates for, 112 
fat in bodies of, 26, 28 
grinding grains for, 70, 310 
mineral matter in bodies of, 26 
protein in bodies of, 26, 30 

requirements for fattening, 136 
growth, 132-3 
rations for, calculating, 112 
roughages for, 112 
water in bodies of, 26, 27 
See also Sheej) 
Lanolin, 20 
Large intestine, 36-7 
digestion in, 46-7 



Leaching, influence of, on value of 

manure, 326-7 
Legumes, 270-7 
Leguminous hays, 232-46 
crude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 16 
water in, 5 
Leguminous pastures, 270-7 
Leguminous seeds, 183-6 
crude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen -free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 
Length of fattening period, influence 
of, on efficiency of rations, 
317-8 
Lespedeza hay, 243-4 

pasture, 274 
Lime, see Calcium 

Lime phosphate, see Calcium phos- 
phate 
Linseed cake, see Linseed oil meal 

or cake 
Linseed meal, see Linseed oil meal 

or cake 
Linseed oil, 20 

Linseed oil meal or cake, 206-9 
composition of, 207 
for breeding stock, 208-9 
fattening stock, 208 
growing stock, 208 
milch cows, 209 
work horses, 209 
net energy value of, 207 
new process, 207 
old process, 206 
Lipase, gastric, 42, 54 

pancreatic, 44, 45, 46, 54 
Liquid manure, influence of loss of, 
on value of manure, 325-6 
Liver, 37, 38, 45 

glycogen stored in, 30 

Magnesium, in animal body, 28 
feedingstuffs, 7 



388 



INDEX 



Maintenance ration, 129 
Maintenance requirements of farm 

animals, 129-30 
Maize, see Corn 
Maltase, 41 

action of, on maltose, 41, 45, 46, 
53 
Maltose, 14 

action of maltase on, 41, 45, 46, 53 
formed by action of saliva on 
starch, 40 
Malt sprouts, 202 
Malt sugar, see Maltose 
Mammoth clover, see Clover, mam- 
moth 
Mangels, 297-8 
Mangelwurzels, 297-8 
Manure, amounts voided by farm 
animals per year, 321 
ash of feed excreted in, by farm 

animals, 322-3 
barnyard, benefits soil, 320-1 
care of, to prevent loss, 327 
factors affecting value of, 324-7 
fertilizing elements in, 325 
influence of age of animal on value 
of, 324 
feeds of ration on, 324 
fermentation on, 326 
leaching on, 326 
species of animal on, 324-5 
losses, 325-6 

nitrogen of feed excreted in, by 
farm animals, 322-3 
Manurial value of feedingstuffs, 

327-9 
Manyplies, see Omasum 
Marbling of meat, 31, 32 
Mare, see Horses 
Mastication, 40, 41 
energy lost in, 99 
Meadow fescue pasture, 286 
Measurement of grain, 113 
Meat, marbling of, 31, 32 
Meat meal, 216-8 
Meat scraps, 219 
Metabolism, 76-7 
Metabolizable energy, 95-8 
uses in animal body, 97-8 
Methane, 43, 54, 95 



Middlings, see kind of middlings as 
Oat middlings, Wheat mid- 
dlings, etc. 
Milch cows, see Cows, dairy 
Milk, action of rennin on, 42 

amount produced per 100 lbs. of 
digestible organic matter, 
311 
composition of, 139 
crude protein in, 13 
fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 16 
skim, 229 
water in, 5 
Milk cows, see Cows, dairy 
Milk production, 139-49 

Eckles feeding standard for, 147-8 
Haecker feeding standard for, 

140-2, 148 
Henry-Morrison feeding standard 

for. Appendix Table 33 
Savage feeding standard for, 142-5, 

148 
Wolff-Lehmann feeding standard 

for, Appendix Table 32 
Woll-Humphrey feeding standard 
for, 145-6, 148 
Milk products, crude protein in, 13 
fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 16 
water in, 5 
Milk sugar, see Lactose * 

Millet, 183 
Millet hay, 248-9 
Millet pasture, 281 
silage, 281 
straw, 264 
Milo maize, 182, 258-60 
Milo maize fodder, 258-60 
Milo maize silage, 294-5 
Milo maize stover, 262 
Mineral matter or ash, absorption 
of, 49, 51 
digestibility of, 63-4 
excretion of, from animal body, 

77-8 
functions of, in animal body, 77- 



INDEX 



Mineral matter or ash, in animal and 
vegetable substances, 6-7 
bodies of farm animals, 26, 27-8 
feedingstuffs, 7-9 

how determined, 8 
increase in body weight of 

steers, 33 
manure of farm animals, 325 
influence on farm animals of 

rations deficient in, 78-80 
of feed excreted in manure by 

farm animals, 322-3 
required for fertilizing soil, 320 
growth, 78-80 
Mixed feeds, commercial, 223-6 
Molasses, 227 
Molasses feeds, 228 
Mouth, 34 

digestion in, 40-1 
Muscles, energy used in work of, 
101-2 

Net energy, see Energy, net 
Nitrogen as a fertilizer, 320 

in manure of farm animals, 325 
of feeds excreted in manure by 
farm animals, 322-3 
Nitrogen-free extract, absorption of, 
53 
composition of, 14-5 
digestibility of, 64-5 
digestion of, 52-3 
in feedingstuffs, 15-6, 52 
how determined, 15 
Non-proteins, 11 
Nutrients, 2-3 

absorption of, 47-50 
definition of, 2 
digestible, 74-5 

in feedingstuffs. Appendix 

Tables 29, 30, 31, 35 
yield of, per acre by various 
crops, 15^ 
digestion of, 40-7, 50-5 
functions of, in animal body, 76-89 
gross energy values of, 95 
net energy values of, 101 
nitrogenous, influence on digesti- 
biUty of adding to ration, 
74 



Nutrients, non-nitrogenous, influence 
of excess of, in ration on 
digestibility, 73 
required by farm animals for 
fattening, 135-7 
growth, 130-4 
maintenance, 129-30 
milk production, 139-49 
wool production, 149 
work, 137-9 
Nutritive ratio, 89-92 

Oat by-products, 202-3 
Oat clippings, 203 
Oat dust, 203 
Oat grass, tall, 253 
Oat grass hay, 253 
Oat hay, 254 
Oat hulls, 202-3 
Oat middlings, 202 
Oat pasture, 283 
Oat shorts, 202 
Oat straw, 264 
Oats, 169-74 

composition of, 171 

for breeding stock, 172-3 
fattening stock, 172 
growing stock, 171-2 
milk cows, 173 
work horses, 174-5 

net energy value of, 171 
Oil, definition of, 19 
Oil-bearing seeds, 186-7 

crude fiber in, 17-8 

crude protein in, 12-3 

fat in, 21-3 

mineral matter in, 8 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 

water in, 5-6 
Oil by-products, 206-15 

crude fiber in, 18 

crude protein in, 12-3 

fat in, 21-2 

mineral matter in, 8 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 

water in, 5-6 
Oil cake, see Linseed meal or 

cake 
Oils, 20 
Olein, 19 



390 



INDEX 



Omasum, 35-6 
digestion in, 42-3 

Orchard grass, 250 

Orchard grass hay, 250 

Orchard grass pasture, 282 

Organic acids, 14 

Organic compounds, 2-3 

Organic matter, products yielded 
by various farm animals 
from 100 lbs. of digestible, 
311 

Oxygen, 18, 19 

Packinghouse by-products, 216-20 

crude fiber in, 18 

crude protein in, 12-3 

fat in, 21-2 

mineral matter in, 8 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 

water in, 5-6 
Palatability, influence of, on di- 
gestibility of rations, 68-9 
Palmitin, 19 
Pancreas, 37, 38 
Pancreatic amylase, 44, 45, 53 
Pancreatic juice, 38, 44, 45 
Pancreatic lipase, 44, 45, 46 
Pasture, 266-7, 270-86 

classes of, 266-7 

crude fiber in, 18 

crude protein in, 12-3 

definition, 266 

fat in, 21-2 

grasses, 277-86 

legumes, 270-7 

mineral matter in, 8 

nitrogen-free extract in, 15 

water in, 5 
Patent stock foods, influence of, 
on digestibility, 70-1, 221-2 
Paunch, see Rumen 
Pea, Canada field, 183-4 

for hay, 244 
Peanut hay, 244 
Peanut hulls, 215 
Peanut meal or cake, 214 
Peanut pasture, 274 
Peanuts, 185-6 
Peat, 300 
Pentosans, 13, 43 



Pepsin, 42, 51 

Peptids, 45, 51 

Peptones, 42, 45, 46, 51, 52 

Perennial rye grass pasture, 286 

Perspiration, loss of body heat by, 

103-4 
Phosphatides, 20-1 
Phosphorus, as a fertilizer, 320 

excretion of, from animal body, 78 
in animal body, 28 

feedingstuffs, 7 
influence on pigs, of rations defi- 
cient in, 79-80 
in manure of farm , animals, 322, 

325 
inorganic, for pigs, 79 
of feeds, excreted in manure by 
farm animals, 322-3 
Pigs 

(For the value of a particular 

feed for pigs, see name of 

feed) 

addition of nitrogenous nutrients 

. to rations of, as affecting 

digestibility, 73 

ash of feed excreted in manure by, 

322-3 
calcium-poor rations, effect on, 

79-80 
composition of bodies of, 26 
concentrates for. 111, 112 
Dietrich's feeding standard for 

growing, 133 
efficiency of gains as affected by 
previous fasting, 317 
as related to body weight, 314 
excess of non-nitrogenous nutrients 
in rations as affecting di- 
gestibility, 73 
fat in bodies of, 26 
feeding rock phosphate to, 79 
grinding grains for, 70 
individuality of, as affecting di- 
gestibility of rations, 68 
influence of rations deficient in 
mineral matter on, 78-80 
in protein on, 83-7 
mineral matter in bodies of, 26 
required for growth, 78-80, 
131 



INDEX 



391 



Pigs, nitrogen of feed excreted in ma- 
nure by, 323 
phosphorus-poor rations, effect on, 

79-80 
protein in bodies of, 26 
rations for, calculating. 111, 

112 
relation of body weight to efficiency 

of gains, 314 
roughages for. 111, 112 
strength of bones as affected by 

feed, 79-80 
water in bodies of, 26, 27 
weights of, as related to efficiency 

of gains, 314 
See also Hogs 
Plants, carbohydrates in, 13 
crude fiber in, 16-7 
fat in, 18 

mineral matter in, 6-7 
nitrogen-free extract in, 14-5 
non-proteins in, 11 
protein in, 9 

stage of growth of, as affecting di- 
gestibility, 71-2 
storage of energy by, 92 
water in, 4 
Potassium, as a fertilizer, 320 
in animal body, 28 
feedingstufifs, 7 

manure of farm animals, 322-3, 
325 
of feeds excreted in manure by 
farm animals, 322-3 
Potatoes, 299 
Potato starch, 13 
Potential energy, 92-3 
Poultry, products of, from 100 lbs. 
digestible organic matter, 
311 
Prairie hay, 253 
Pregnant animals.^feed requirements 

of, 134 
Preparation of feeds as affecting 
digestibility of rations, 69- 
70 
efficiency of rations, 309-10 
Previous treatment of animals as 
affecting efficiency of ra- 
tions, 316-7 



Products of various farm animals 
from 100 lbs. digestible 
organic matter, 311 
Proprietary feeds, influence of, on 
digestibility of rations, 70-1, 
221-2 
Protein, 9 

absorption of, 48, 51-2 
composition of, 10 
crude, 9 

body fat formed from, 81-2 
digestibility of, 64 
energy derived from, 80-1 
functions of, in animal body, 

80-2 
in feedingstufTs, 12-3 
glycogen derived from, 81-2 
digestion of, 42, 44-5, 46, 47, 51-2 
gross energy value of, 95 
in bodies of farm animals, 26, 29— 

30 
influence on pigs, of rations defi- 
cient in, 83-7 
in increase in body weight of farm 

animals, 31-3 
net energy values of, 101 
nutritive value of, 9, 10-11, 80-2 
required for growth, 9, 80, 81, 82 
Proteoses, 42, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52 
Ptomaines, 47, 52 
Ptyalin, 39-41, 52-3 
Pumpkins, 304 

Quantity of feed, how determined 
for rations, 112-3 
influence of, on digestibility of 
rations, 72-3 
efficiency of rations, 307-9 

Radiation, loss of body heat bv, 

103-4 
Rape, 301-2 
Rape seed cake, 215 
Ratio, nutritive, 89-92 
Rations, amounts of, as affecting di- 
gestibility, 72-3 
efficiency, 307-9 
balanced, 119 

composition of, as affecting ef- 
ficiency, 306-7 



392 



INDEX 



Rations, compounding of, according 
to feeding standards, 121-3, 
125-9, 139-49 
for beef cattle. 111 

dairy cows, 110-11, 139-49 
fattening, 135-7 
growth, 130-4 
hogs, 111-2 
horses, 109-10 
maintenance, 129-30 
milk production, 139-49 
pregnancy, 134 
sheep, 112, 149 
wool production, 149 
work, 137-9 
general rules for, 107-13 
deficient in mineral matter, influ- 
ence of, on pigs, 78-80 
protein, influence of, on pigs, 
83-7 
digestibility of, as affecting effi- 
ciency, 307 
factors affecting, 66-74 
efficiency of, 305-19 

factors affecting, 306-19 
excess of non-nitrogenous nutrients 
in, as affecting digestibility, 
73-4 
feed-unit system of calculating, 

149-52 
maintenance, 129-30 
palatability of, as affecting di- 
gestibility, 68-9 
preparation of, as affecting di- 
gestibility, 69-70 
efficiency, 309-10 
standards for, see Feeding stand- 
ards 
vitamines in, 22-4 
Raw bone meal, 219-20 
Red clover, see Clover, red ' 

Red dog flour, 198-9 
Red top grass hay, 250 
Red top grass pasture, 282 
Red top straw, 264 
Refuse, cannery, for silage, 295 
Rennin, 42 

Respiration calorimeter, 96-7 
Reticulum, 35, 36 
digestion in, 42-3 



Rice, 183 
Rice bran, 204 
Rice by-products, 204 
Rice hulls, 204 
Rice polish, 204 
Rock phosphate for pigs, 79 
Roots, 296-300 
crude fiber in, 18 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 21-2 
mineral matter in, 8-9 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 
Roughages, compared with con- 
centrates in digestibility 
of: 
crude fiber, 65-6 
crude protein, 64 
fat, 66 

nitrogen-free extract, 64-5 
definition, 106 

estimating weights of, 115-7 
in rations, 112-3 
net energy value of, 106 
proportion of, to concentrates as 
affecting efficiency of gains, 
307 
subclasses, 157-8 
valuation of, as compared with 
concentrates, 114 
Rumen, 35, 36 

digestion in, 42-3 
Ruminants, mastication of, 41 
stomachs of, 35-6 
digestion in, 42-4 
Rumination, 41 

energy used in, 99 
Rutabagas, 299 
Rye, 174-5 

composition of, 174 
distillers' grains from, 204 
for breeding stock, 175 
fattening stock, 175 
growing stock, 174-5 
milk cows, 175 
work horses, 175 
net energy value of, 174 
Rye bran, 203 
Rye by-products, 203-4 
Rye feed, 204 



INDEX 



393 



Rye grass hay, Italian, 253-4 
Rye grass pasture, Italian, 283 

perennial, 286 
Rye hay, 254-5 
Rye middlings, 203-4 
Rye pasture, 283 
Rye shorts, 203 
Rye straw, 264 

Saliva, action on food, 40-41 

amount secreted, 40 
Salivary amylase, 39-41, 52-3 
Salivary glands, 37-8, 40 
Salt, common, influence of, on di- 
gestibility, 71 
required by farm animals, 78 
Salvage grain, 229 
Saponification, 20 
Savage feeding standard for dairy 

cows, 142-5, 148 
Seeds, 157-87 

crude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 22 

leguminous, 183-6 
mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
oil-bearing, 186-7 
water in, 5-6 
Self-feeders, 152-6 
for cattle, 155-6 
hogs, 153-5 
horses, 156 
sheep, 156 
Sesame seed cake, 215 
Shallu, 182, 260 
Shallu fodder, 260 
Shallu stover, 262 
Sheep 

(For the value of a particular feed 
for sheep, see name of feed) 
amount of feed as affecting di- 
gestibility of rations for, 73 
ash of feed excreted in manure by, 

323 
composition of bodies of, 26 
concentrates for, 112 
digestible nutrients in feeding- 
stuffs for. Appendix Table 
29 



Sheep, fat in bodies of, 26, 28 

fertilizing elements in manure of, 

325 
grinding grains for, 70, 310 
large intestines of, 37 
maintenance requirements of, 130 
manure, amount excreted per year 
by, 321 
ash of feed excreted in, 323 
fertilizing element? in, 325 
nitrogen of feed excreted in, 323 
mineral matter in bodies of, 26, 

28 
nitrogen of feed excreted in manure 

of, 323 
products of, per 100 lbs. digestible 

organic matter, 311 
protein in bodies of, 26, 30 
requirements for fattening, 136 

wool production, 149 
roughages for, 112 

utilization of, compared with 
other animals, 67, 312 
self-feeders for, 156 
small intestines of, 36 
species of, as affecting efficiency 

of rations, 310 
stomachs of, 35-6 
total dry substance and digestible 
nutrients in feedingstuffs 
for. Appendix Table 29 
type of, as affecting efficiency of 

rations, 313 
water in bodies of, 26, 27 
wool production, requirements for, 

149 
See also Lambs 
Shelter for farm animals, 104-5, 319 
Shipstuff, 199 

Shoats, concentrates and roughages 
for, 112 
See also Hogs, Pigs 
Shorts, see kind of shorts, as Oat 

shorts. Rye shorts, etc. 
Silage, 287-95 

advantages of, 288-9 
alfalfa for, 294 
beet pulp for, 295 
cannery refuse for, 295 
clover for, 294 



394 



INDEX 



Silage, corn for, 289-94 
composition of, 290 
for beef cattle, 292-3 
dairy cows, 291-2 
hogs, 294 
horses, 293-4 
sheep, 293 
influence of fermentation on, 

290-1 
net energy value of, 290 
yield per acre, 290 
cowpeas for, 294 
crude fiber in, 18 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 22 
feterita for, 294-5 
kafir corn for, 294-5 
milo maize for, 294-5 ' 

mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
soft corn for, 290 
sorghum bagasse for, 295 
soybeans for, 294 
sweet sorghum for, 294-5 
water in, 5 
Silo, 287-9 

capacity of, 118 
requisites of a good, 287-8 
Skatol, 47, 52 
Skim milk, 82, 229 
Skin, loss of heat from, l)y eA'apora- 
ation from, 103-4 
conduction and radiation from, 
103-4 
Slaughter-house by-products, 216-20 
Slender wheat grass, 254 
Slender wheat grass hay, 254 
Small intestine, 36 

digestion in, 44-6 
Soaking feed, influence of, on di- 
gestibility of feedingstuffs, 
69 
eflSciency of rations, 310 
Soap, how made, 20 
Sodium, in animal body, 28 

feedingstuffs, 8 
Soft corn, 166 

for silage, 290 
Soilage, 267-86 

advantages of, 268-9 



Soilage, crops for, 267-86 
definition, 267 
disadvantages of, 268-9 
grasses for, 277-86 
legumes for, 270-7 
Sorgho, see Sorghum,, sweet 
Sorghum, sweet, 179-82 
Sorghum bagasse silage, 295 
Sorghum fodder, sweet, 258 
Sorghum hay, 249 
Sorghum pasture, 281-2 
Sorghum silage, sweet, 294-5 
Sorghum stover, 262 
Sorghums, grain, 179-82 

sweet, 179-82 
Sows, see Hogs and Pigs 
Soybean, 185 
Soybean cake, 214 
Soybean hay, 245 
Soybean meal, 214 
Soybean pasture, 277 
Soybean silage, 294 
Soybean straw, 264 
Species of animal, influence of, on 
digestibility, 66-7 
efficiency of rations, 310-2 
value of manure, 324-5 
Spelt, 179 
Sperm oil, 20 

Stacks, hay, estimating cubic con- 
tents of, 115-7 
Stage of growth of plant, influence 

of, on digestibility, 71-2 
Stallion, see Horses 
Standards of feeding, see Feeding 

standards 
Starch, 13, 14 

action of pancreatic amylase on, 45 

ptyalin on, 40, 52-3 
manufactured from corn, 188-9 
Steam engine and animal compared, 

96, 100 
Steapsin, see Pancreatic lipase 
Stearin, 19 

Steers, addition of nitrogenous nu- 
trients to ration as affecting 
digestibility, 74 
age of, as affecting digestibility 
of rations, 67 
efficiency of rations, 314-5 



INDEX 



395 



Steers, amount of feed, influeiioe of, on 
digestibility of rations. 72-3 
efficiency of rations for, 307-8 

ash in bodies of, 26, 29 

of feed excreted in manure of, 
323 

breed of, as affecting digestibility 
of rations, 67 

calculating rations for, 111, 125-6 

capacity of, as affecting efficiency 
of rations, 315-6 

composition of bodies of, 26 

increase in body weight of, 32 3 

concentrates for. 111 
"condition of, as affecting diges- 
tibility of rations, 67 

fat in bodies of, 26, 28, 29 

fertilizing elements in manure of, 
321-2 

grade of, as affecting efficiency 
of rations for, 312-3 

Haecker's feeding standard for 
fattening, 131-2 

increase in body weight of, com- 
position, 32-3 

length of fattening period, influ- 
ence of, on efficiency of 
gains, 317-8 

manure, ash of feed excreted in, 
323 
fertilizing elements in, 321-2 
loss in, from exposure to weather, 

326 
nitrogen of feed excreted in, 323 

mineral matter in bodies of, 26, 29 

net energy required by, for 1 lb. 
of gain, 314 

nitrogen of feed excreted in ma- 
nure by, 323 

patent stock foods, influence of, 
on digestibility of rations, 
71 

preparation of feeds as affecting 
efficiency of rations, 311-2 

previous treatment as affecting 
efficiency of rations, 316, 
317 

products of, from 100 lbs. of di- 
gestible organic matter, 
311-2 . 



Steers, protein in bodies of, 26, 
29 
requirements for fattening, 131-2, 

136 
roughages for, 111 
self-feeders for, 155-6 
shelling corn for, 309 
temperament of, as affecting effi- 
ciency of rations, 316 
water in bodies of, 26, 29 
Stimulant, prescription for, 222-3 
Stock foods, patent, influence of, 
on digestibility, 70-1, 221-2 
Stomach, 34-5 
digestion in, 41-4 
of cow, 35 
hog, 34-5 
horse, 34-5 
ruminants, 35-6 

digestion in, 42-4 
sheep, 35 
simple, 34-5 

digestion in, 41-2 
Storage of carbohydrates as glycogen 
and fat in animal body, 87, 88 
crude protein as glycogen and fat 

in animal body, 81-2 
energy in animal body, 105 
fat in animal l)ody, 81-2, 87, 88, 89 
feedingstufifs, influence of, on di- 
gestibility, 72 
glycogen in animal body, 81-2, 87, 88 
Stovers, 256-62 

crude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 22 

mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 
Straws, 263-5 

ci-ude fiber in, 17-8 
crude protein in, 12-3 
fat in, 21-2 
mineral matter in, 8 
nitrogen-free extract in, 15-6 
water in, 5 
Sucrase, 44, 46 

action of, on sucrose, 46, 53 
Sucrose, 13, 14, 52 

action of sucrase on, 46, 53 



396 



INDEX 



Sudan grass, 249-50 
Sudan grass hay, 250 
Sugar-beet pulp, see Beet pulp 
Sugar beets, 298 
Sugars, 13, 14 

absorption of, 48, 53 
Sulphur, in animal body, 28 

feedingstuffs, 7 
Sunflower-seed cake, 215 
Sweating of feeds, influence of, on 

digestibility, 69 
Swedes, 299 

Swedish clover, see Clover, alsike 
Sweet clover, see Clover, sweet 
Sweet sorghum, see Sorghum, sweet 
Swine, see Hogs and Pigs 

Tall oat grass, 253 

Tall oat grass hay, 253 

Tankage, 216-8 

Teeth, 37 

Temperament of animal, influence 
of, on efficiency of rations, 
316 

Temperature, influence of, on effi- 
ciency of rations, 319 

Therm, 93 

Timothy grass, 280-1 

Timothy hay, 246-8 

Timothy pasture, 280-1 

Timothy straw, 264 

Tin-plate by-product, 230 

Tongue, 37 

Tonic, prescription for, 222-3 

Treatment of animal, influence of, 
on efficiency of rations, 
316-7 

Trypsin, 44-5, 51, 52 

Turnips, 299 

Type of animal, influence of, on 
efficiency of rations, 312-3 

Urine, amounts voided by farm 
animals per year, 321 
fertilizing elements in, 322, 325 
influence of loss of, on value of 

manure, 325 
mineral matter of feeds excreted 
in, by dairy cows, 322 
Utilization of energy, coefficient of, 
102-3 



Valuation of feedingstuffs, 330-3 

Van Norman feeding standard for 
dairy cows, 128-9 

Vegetable meal, 230-1 

Velvet bean hay, 244 

Velvet bean pasture, 274 

Vetch, common and hairy, for hay, 
245-6 
for pasture, 277 

Villi, 47-9 

Vinegar-dried grains, 231 

Vital processes, energy consumed in, 
98-9 

Vitamines, 22-4 

Voluntary muscles, energy con- 
sumed in work of, 101-2 

Water, absorption of, 49, 50 
composition of, 3 
function of, in plants, 4 

in animal body, 77 
how excreted from animal body, 77 
in bodies of farm animals, 26-7 
function, 77 
feedingstuffs, 4-6 
how determined, 5 
nutritive value, 9 
warming for farm animals, 104 
Watering farm animals, influence of 
frequency on digestibility, 70 
Waxes, 20 

Weight, body, composition of in- 
crease in, 30-3 
Western wheat grass, 254 
Western wheat grass hay, 254 
Wet beet pulp, 228 
Wet brewers' grains, 199-201 
Wethers, see Sheep 
Wetting feeds, influence of, on di- 
gestibility, 69 
efficiency of rations, 310 
Wheat, 166-9 

composition of, 167 
for breeding stock, 169 
fattening stock, 168-9 
growing stock, 167-8 
milk cows, 169 
work horses, 169 
kinds of, 167 
net energy value of, 167 



INDEX 



397 



Wheat, spring, 167 

winter, 167 
Wheat bran, 194-6 
composition of, 194 
for breeding stock, 196 
fattening stock, 195-6 
growing stock, 195 
milch cows, 196 
work horses, 196 
net energy value of, 194 
Wheat by-products, 193-200 
Wheat grass, 254 
Wheat grass hay, 254 
Wheat middHngs, 197-8 
Wheat pasture, 284 
Wheat screenings, 200 
Wheat shorts, 197 
Wheat starch, 13 
Wheat straw, 264 
Whey, 230 

White clover, see Clover, white 
Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards, 

120-1, Appendix Table 32 
Woll-Humphrey feeding standards 
for dairy cows, 145-6, 148 



Wool fat, 20 

Wool production, requirements for, 

149 
Work, influence of, on digestibihty, 
67-8 
of digestion and absorption, energy 
consumed in, 99-100 
vital processes, energy con- 
sumed in, 98-9 
voluntary muscles, energy con- 
sumed in, 101-3 
heat produced in, 102 
influence of, on digestibility, 

67-8 
requirements by horses for, 

138-9 

sources of energy for, 80, 87, 

88, 89 

requirements of farm animals for, 

137-9 

Work horses, see Horses 

Yeast-dried grains, 231 

Zein, 83 



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view of the practical poultry raiser is emphasized throughout. 
To the average man the chief points of interest about disease 
are three : — its recognition, its cure, if such be possible, and 
its prevention in the future. These are the matters on which 
stress is laid in this volume. Entirely original and outstanding 
features of the treatise are: (a) the discussion of hygiene and 
sanitation, (b) the tables for aiding in the diagnosis of disease 
both from external symptoms and post-mortem findings, (c) the 
thorough analysis of the literature of the subject, (d) the wide 
first-hand experience of the authors with the subject. Nearly 
every disease mentioned has been observed by the authors 
directly in their work at the Maine Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 



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